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Management Question

Description

Regulations:

✓ This assignment is an individual assignment.

✓ Support your submission with course material concepts, principles, and theories from the textbook along with few scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles.

✓ Use Saudi Electronic University academic writing standards and APA style guidelines, citing references as appropriate.

✓ Submit your findings in a 3–4-page document, excluding the title page, abstract and required reference page, which are never a part of the minimum content requirements, in the Assignment Dropbox.

✓ It is strongly encouraged that you submit all assignments to the Turnitin Originality Check (available under Information folder on your Blackboard) prior to submitting them to your instructor for grading. If you are unsure how to submit an assignment to the Originality Check tool, review the Turnitin Originality Check – Student Guide for step-by-step instructions.

An Overview about Assignment submission Time & grades:

Type of Assignment	Posting Date	Due date	Marks	Grace period*
Critical thinking	Week 10	End of Week 11	15	3 Days

* Grace Period: with accepted excuse (accepted by instructor) with deduction of 10% for late submission

Critical Thinking Assignment 2

Provisional Questions for Data Collection

(Questionnaire) (15 points)

By this time, you will have a good knowledge of data collection techniques and the measurement questions and instruments. Develop a good questionnaire based on the chapters from the textbook (module 5-8). The questionnaire must have all types of questions you studied in the chapters, e.g. Dichotomous (Yes/ No), Multichotomous (MCQ), Check List, Ranking & Rating Scale as well as Open-ended questions. Minimum 20 questions should be included in the questionnaire (mentioning the type of question). The logical sequence must be maintained and the ideal format and basic guidelines must be adhered.

Answers

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Chapter 7
STAGE 2; DATA COLLECTION DESIGN
OBSERVATION STUDIES

7-1

Learning Objectives
Understand . . .
 When observation studies are most useful.
 The distinctions between monitoring nonbehavioral and

behavioral activities.
 The strengths of the observation approach in research
design.
 The weaknesses of the observation approach in research
design.
 The three perspectives from which the observer–
participant relationship may be viewed in observation
studies.
 The various designs of observation studies.
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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7-2

Observation and
the Research
Process

7-3

Factors Influencing Research Design

7-4

Event Sampling
If event/act occurs
Duration of event
Antecedents of event
Consequences of event

7-5

Time Sampling
Time-Point Sample
Continuous Real-time Sample
Time-Interval Sample

7-6

Content of Observation
Fact

Inference

•

Introduction/identification of
salesperson and customer.

•

Credibility of salesperson. Qualified status of
customer.

•

Time and day of week.

•

Convenience for the customer. Welcoming attitude
of the customer

•

Product presented.

•

Customer interest in product.

•

Selling points presented per product.

•

Customer acceptance of selling points of product.

•

Number of customer objections raised
per product.

•

Customer concerns about features and benefits.

•

Salesperson’s rebuttal of objection.

•

Effectiveness of salesperson’s rebuttal attempts.

•

Salesperson’s attempt to restore
controls.

•
•

Effectiveness of salesperson’s control attempt.
Consequences for customer who prefers
interaction.

•

Length of interview.

•

Customer’s/salesperson’s degree of enthusiasm for
the interview.

•

Environmental factors interfering with
the interview.

•

Level of distraction for the customer.

•

Customer purchase decision.

•

General evaluation of sale presentation skill.

7-7

Selecting an
Observation
Data Collection
Approach

7-8

Data Collection via Observation
Watching
Listening
Touching
Smelling
Reading

7-9

Simple Observation
Unstructured
Not standardized
Anecdotal
Fact and Inference

7-10

Systematic Observation
Standardized Protocols
Properly controlled
Consistently dependable
Accurate account of events

7-11

Systematic Observation: Protocols
Structured
Checklist

Trained
observers

Standardized
Protocols
Encoding
data

Recording
Schedule

7-12

Selecting an
Observation
Data
Collection
Approach:
Behavioral

7-13

Selecting an Observation Data Collection
Approach: Behavioral

Behavioral
Nonverbal
Linguistic
Extralinguistic
Spatial

7-14

Some Mechanical/Digital Observation Tools

Video camera
Audio Recorder
Galvanometer
Eye Camera/Pupilometer
Tachistoscope

7-15

Observer-Participant Relationship

Direct vs. indirect
Open vs. Concealed
Participant vs Nonparticipant

7-16

Linguistic Observation

What Content
How Much Content
How Delivered

7-17

Extralinguistic Observation

Vocal
Temporal
Interaction
Verbal Stylistic

18
7-18

Some Studies of Spatial Relationships

How a person relates
physically to others.
How people organize
their environment
How salesperson organizes
his sales territory calls

7-19

Selecting an Observation Data Collection
Approach: Nonbehavioral

7-20

Selecting an Observation Data Collection
Approach: Nonbehavioral

7-21

Flowchart: Observation Checklist Creation

7-22

Nonbehavioral Observation
Record
Analysis
Physical Condition
Analysis
Physical Process
Analysis

7-23

Desired Characteristics for Observers

Experience
Concentration
Detail-oriented
Unobtrusive

7-24

Errors Introduced by Observers

Halo Effect

Observer Drift

7-25

Evaluation of Observation
Strengths

Weaknesses

 Capturing nformation that

 Obtaining Motivation

is otherwise unavailable
 Avoiding participant
filtering/ forgetting
 Securing environmental
context
 Optimizing naturalness
 Reducing obtrusiveness

 Long periods of

concentration
 Higher expenses
 Lower reliability of
inferences
 Quantifying data
 Keeping large records
 Knowledge of cognitive
processes
7-26

Ethical Issues and Their Solutions
No Prior Consent
Right of Privacy
Right to Quality
Projection to
Target Population

7-27

Ethical Issues and Their Solutions
Debriefing
Checklist Pretesting
Observer Training
Protocol Pretesting
Observer Supervision
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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7-28

Key Terms
 Concealment
 Event sampling
 Halo effect
 Memory Decay
 Observation

checklist
 Observer drift
 Physical condition
analysis
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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 Observation











Behavioral
Direct
Extralinguistic
Indirect
Linguistic
Nonverbal
Participant
Simple
Spatial
Systematic
7-29

Key Terms
 Physical traces
 Process (activity) analysis
 Reactivity response
 Record analysis
 Selective Filtering
 Spatial Relationships
 Time sampling
 Unobtrusive measures

7-30

Chapter 6
STAGE 2: DATA COLLECTION DESIGN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

6-1

Learning Objectives
Understand . . .
 The nature of qualitative research and its distinctions from

quantitative research.
 The types of business decisions that use qualitative
methods.
 The variety of qualitative research methods.
 The importance and responsibility of the interviewer.
 Ethical issues related to qualitative research.

6-2

Some
Appropriate
Uses for
Qualitative
Research

6-3

Qualitative
Research
and the
Research
Process

6-4

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Focus of Research
Researcher Involvement
Research Purpose
Sample Design
Sample Size
Research Design

6-5

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research (cont.)

Engagement Exercises
Participant Preparation
Data Type and Preparation
Data Analysis
Insights and Meaning
Research Sponsor
Involvement
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-6

3 Distinctions

Level of
Question
Development
in
Mgt-Research
Question
Hierarchy

Participant
Preparation

Integration of
data and
insights from
data collectors
and
managersponsors.

6-7

Distinction between Qualitative & Quantitative

Theory
Building

Theory
Testing

6-8

The Roots of Qualitative Research
Diciplines
Economics
Psychology

Sociology
Semiotics

Anthropology
Communication
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-9

Qualitative Sampling Design

Purposive
Sampling

Snowball
Sampling

Convenience
Sampling

6-10

Sampling Design:
Qualitative Data Sources
People
Organizations
Texts
Environments
Artifacts/ media products
Events and happenings

6-11

Good Participant Characteristics
Share common
characteristics
Like to
collaborate
Want to share
ideas &
experiences

Range of life
experiences
Characteristics
Hold different
perspectives
Can articulate their ideas,
attitudes, experiences, etc.

6-12

Qualitative Sample Size

General sampling rule:
Keep sampling until you reach

Data Saturation.

6-13

Qualitative Data Collection Design
Group
Interviews
Creative
Exercises

IDIs

Interview
Techniques

Action
Research

Case Studies
Grounded
Theory

6-14

Qualitative Data Analysis
Photo/Video
Analysis
Artifacts

Text Analysis

Other
Techniques
Trace
Evidence
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Behavioral
Observation
Analysis
6-15

Focus of Research
Qualitative
 Understanding
 Interpretation
Quantitative
 Description
 Explanation

6-16

Researcher Involvement
Qualitative
High
Participation-based
Quantitative
Limited
Controlled

6-17

Interviewers as Consultants
 Recommend method & level

of structure
 Propose criteria for drawing
sample
 Write screener
 Recruits participants
 Recommend topics and
questions
 Prepare location & facilities
 Develop pretasking
activities

 Prepare discussion guide
 Prepare instructions
 Prepare stimuli & tools
 Control interview
 Debrief sponsor and

observers
 Supervise transcription
 Help analyze data
 Draw insights
 Prepare or guide
preparation of report
6-18

Time Duration
Qualitative
Longitudinal
Multi-method
Quantitative
Cross-sectional or
longitudinal
Single method

6-19

Sample Design and Size
Qualitative
Non-probability
Purposive
Small sample
Quantitative
Probability
Large sample
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-20

Data Type and Preparation
Qualitative
Verbal or pictorial
Reduced to verbal
codes
Quantitative
Verbal descriptions
Reduced to numeric
codes
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-21

Turnaround
Qualitative
Shorter turnaround possible
Insight development ongoing
Quantitative
May be time-consuming
Insight development follows
data entry

6-22

Data Analysis
Qualitative
 Nonquantitative
 Human judgment mixed
with fact
 Emphasis on themes
Quantitative
 Computerized analysis
 Facts distinguished
 Emphasis on counts

6-23

Data Security
Qualitative
 More absolute, given
restricted access facilities.

Quantitative
 Act of research is often
known by competitors

6-24

Some Pretasking Activities
Use product in home
Bring visual stimuli
Create collage
Keep diaries
Draw pictures
Construct a story
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-26

Choosing the Qualitative Method
Project’s
purpose
Researcher
characteristics

Schedule

Factors

Types of
participants

Budget
Topics

6-27

The Interview Question Hierarchy

6-28

Interview Structure Level

Unstructured
Semi-structured
Structured

6-29

Requirements: Unstructured Interviews

Developed dialog

Probe for
answers

Distinctions

Interviewer
creativity

Interviewer skill
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-30

The Interview Mode

Individual

Group

6-31

IDI vs Group Interview
Research
Objective

Individual Interview
• Explore life of individual in depth
• Create case histories through
repeated interviews over time
• Test a structured interview

Group Interview
•
•
•
•

Participants

Topic
Concerns

•
•

Detailed individual experiences,
choices, biographies
Sensitive issues that might
provoke anxiety

• Time-pressed participants or those
difficult to recruit (e.g., elite or
high-status participants)
• Participants with sufficient
language skills (e.g., those older
than seven)
• Participants whose distinctions
would inhibit participation

•
•

Orient the researcher to a field of inquiry and
the language of the field
Explore a range of attitudes, opinions, and
behaviors
Observe a process of consensus and
disagreement
Add contextual detail
Issues of public interest or common concern
Issues where little is known or of a
hypothetical nature

• Participants whose backgrounds are similar
or not so dissimilar as to generate conflict or
discomfort
• Participants who can articulate their ideas
• Participants who offer a range of positions on
issues

6-32

Research Using IDIs
Oral histories
Sequential
interviewing

Cultural
interviews

Ethnography

Life histories

Types

Grounded
Theory

Critical
Incident
Techniques
Convergent
Interviewing
6-33

Some Projective Techniques
Laddering
Semantic
Mapping

MET

Sensory sorts

Data
Collection
Techniques

Component
Sorts

Imagination
Exercises

Association
Sentence
Completion
Cartoons

Thematic
Apperception
6-34

Group Interviews
Mini-Groups
 Dyads
 Triads

Small

Groups

 Focus Groups

Supergroups

6-35

Determining the Number of Groups
Scope
Number of distinct segments
Desired number of ideas
Desired level of detail
Level of distinction
Homogeneity

6-36

Group Interview Modes

Face-to-Face
Telephone
Online
Videoconference

6-37

Focus Group
Most commonly used
group interview method.

6-38

Factors Influencing Participation
in Group Interviews
Ego
Enhancement
Extrinsic
Rewards

Personal
Contribution

Positive
Expectations

Socialization

Validation

Personal
Growth

Catharsis
6-39

Factors Influencing Participation
in Group Interviews (cont.)
Dominating

Use of Abstract
Terminology

Time
Reticence

Negative

Political
Correctness
Ego Defense

Confusion
Inarticulation

Ego Threats

Embellishment

Memory Decay

6-40

Combining Qualitative Methodologies

Case Study

Action Research

6-41

Triangulation:
Merging Qualitative and Quantitative

Conduct studies
simultaneously

Ongoing qualitative
with multiple waves
of quantitative

Perform series:
Qualitative,
Quantitative,
Qualitative

Quantitative
precedes
Qualitative

6-42

Ethical Issues
Privacy
Confidentiality
Research Quality
Safety
Completion
Truthfulness
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

6-43

Ethical Issues and their Solutions
Right of Prior Consent
Right of Privacy
Use participant’s “voice”
Right of non-disclosure
Respect research scope

6-44

Key Terms
Action research

Case study (case history)
CAPI

Content analysis
Data saturation
Focus group

Group interviews
 Expert
 Heterogeneous
 Homogeneous
 nonexpert
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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IDI
 Convergent interviewing
 Critical incident technique
 Cultural interviews
 Ethnography
 Grounded theory
 Life histories
 Oral history
 Sequential interviewing
Interview
 Semistructured
 Structured
 unstructured

6-45

Key Terms (cont.)
 Interview guide
 Moderator
 Non-probability

sampling
 Pretasking
 Probability sampling
 Qualitative research
 Quantitative research
 Recruitment screener
 Triangulation
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 Projective techniques &

Creative Exercises







Cartoons
Collage
Completion
Component sorts
Imagination exercises
 Imaginary Universe
 Visitor for Another Planet
 Personification
 Authority Figure
 Ambiguities & Paradoxes

6-46

Key Terms (cont.)
 Projective techniques &

Creative Exercises (cont.)
 Laddering
 Metaphor Elicitation

Technique
 Projective Drawing
 Role playing
 Creative innovation role play
 Semantic mapping
 Brand mapping
 Sensory sorts
 Sentence completion
 Story telling






Thematic Apperception Test
Third-party projection
Word or picture association
Write a letter

6-47

‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬
‫وزارة التعليم‬
‫الجامعة السعودية اإللكترونية‬

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Education
Saudi Electronic University

College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Critical Thinking Assignment 2
Course Name: Academic Writing and Student’s Name:
Research Skills
Course Code: RES-500
Student’s ID Number:
Semester: 1st

CRN:
Academic Year: 2025/2026, 1st Term

For Instructor’s Use only
Instructor’s Name:
Students’ Grade:

/15

Level of Marks: High/Middle/Low
Regulations:

✓ This assignment is an individual assignment.
✓ Support your submission with course material concepts, principles, and theories
from the textbook along with few scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles.
✓ Use Saudi Electronic University academic writing standards and APA style
guidelines, citing references as appropriate.
✓ Submit your findings in a 3–4-page document, excluding the title page,
abstract and required reference page, which are never a part of the minimum
content requirements, in the Assignment Dropbox.
✓ It is strongly encouraged that you submit all assignments to the Turnitin
Originality Check (available under Information folder on your Blackboard) prior
to submitting them to your instructor for grading. If you are unsure how to submit
an assignment to the Originality Check tool, review the Turnitin Originality Check
– Student Guide for step-by-step instructions.

An Overview about Assignment submission Time & grades:
Type of Assignment

Posting Date

Due date

Marks

Critical thinking

Week 10

End of Week 11

Grace period*

Days

* Grace Period: with accepted excuse (accepted by instructor) with deduction of 10% for late submission

Restricted – ‫مقيد‬

Critical Thinking Assignment 2
Provisional Questions for Data Collection
(Questionnaire) (15 points)

By this time, you will have a good knowledge of data collection techniques and the
measurement questions and instruments. Develop a good questionnaire based on the
chapters from the textbook (module 5-8). The questionnaire must have all types of
questions you studied in the chapters, e.g. Dichotomous (Yes/ No), Multichotomous
(MCQ), Check List, Ranking & Rating Scale as well as Open-ended questions. Minimum
20 questions should be included in the questionnaire (mentioning the type of question).
The logical sequence must be maintained and the ideal format and basic guidelines must
be adhered.

Answers

Restricted – ‫مقيد‬

Chapter 9
STAGE2 DATA COLLECTION DESIGN: SURVEY RESEARCH

9-1

Learning Objectives
Understand . . .
The process for selecting the appropriate and optimal
survey approach.
The major advantages and disadvantages of the three
survey methods.
What factors affect participation in survey research.
The major sources of error in communication studies
and how to minimize them.
Why an organization might outsource a
communication study.
Ethical issues with survey research and their
solutions.
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Restricted – ‫م قيد‬

10-2

9-2

What is a Survey

• Collect information
•

during a structured
interview.
Comparable data
across all cases

9-3

Survey
Research
and the
Research
Process

10-4

9-4

Selecting a
Survey
Method

10-5

9-5

Response Terms

Noncontact rate

Refusal rate

Incidence rate

10-6

9-6

Participant Motivation

10-7

9-7

Survey Approaches

SelfAdministered
Survey

Telephone
Survey

Survey via
Personal
Interview

10-8

9-8

Self-Administered Surveys
Mobile service
provider
Mailed/Faxed

Courier

Delivery
Modes

Messenger
App.
Computer
delivered

Intercept
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10-9

9-9

Self-Administered Surveys
Cost
Topic
Coverage

Sample
Accessibility

Factors
Anonymity

Time
Constraints

9-10

Advantages of
Self-Administered Survey
Access inaccessible participants
Incentives
Lower Cost
Wider geographic coverage
Minimal staff
Perceived Anonymity
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10-11

9-11

Advantages of
Self-Administered Surveys (cont.)
Answer reflection time
Instrument complexity
Rapid data collection
Visual/Audio Stimuli
Multiple sampling possible
Copyright © 2019 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
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10-12

9-12

Disadvantages of Self-Administered Survey
Access declining due to mobile
No probing for explanation
Lower response rates for
some modes
Low instrument complexity
some modes
Accurate sample frames
necessary
Sample frame access
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10-13

9-13

Disadvantages of
Self-Administered Survey (cont.)
Extreme views skew responses
Participant anxiety
Directions/Instructions
necessary
High-distraction environments
Computer Security

10-14

9-14

Options for Web-based Surveys

Fee-Based
Service

Surveying
Software

10-15

9-15

Advantages of Surveying Software
Word-processing environment
Offer clear directions
Automated publishing
Real-time data tabulation
Rapid results transmission
Flexible analysis & reporting
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10-16

9-16

The Web as a Survey Research Venue

Advantages

Disadvantages

Use of visual stimuli

Possible self-selection

Short turnaround

Longitudinal designs

Access to participants
Perception of

anonymity
Access to data and
experiences otherwise
unavailable
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Recruitment

bias
Coverage
Cost
Difficulty developing
probability samples
Technical skill
System compatibility
issues
10-17

9-17

Designing Questionnaires Using TDM

Easy to read
Offer clear directions
Include personalization
Notify in advance
Encourage response
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10-18

9-18

Improving Completion Rates
Advance Notification
Reminders
Return Directions & Devices
Monetary Incentives
Participation Deadlines
Promise of Anonymity
Appeal for Participation
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10-19

9-19

Self-Administered Trend: Agile Research

Rapid
Decisions

Limited topic
coverage

Trends
Shorter
turnaround

Panels go
mainstream

9-20

Telephone Survey
Traditional
CATI systems

Computer-administered

10-21

9-21

Telephone Survey Advantages
Lower Cost vs. Personal Interview
Wide geographic coverage
Fewer Interviewers
Reduced interviewer bias
Fast completion time
Random dialing
CATI
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10-22

9-22

Telephone Survey Disadvantages
Lower response rate
Early termination
High costs when
geographically dispersed
Limited interview length
Inaccessible populations
Limited complexity
High distraction environment
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10-23

9-23

Survey via Personal Interview

Prescheduled

Intercept

10-24

9-24

Personal Interview Survey
Advantages
Higher cooperation rates
Interviewer can probe, explain
Visual aids possible
Illiterate participants
Interviewers can prescreen
Random dialing
CAPI
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10-25

9-25

Personal Interview Survey
Disadvantages
High costs
Highly trained interviewers
Time-consuming
Labor intensive
Home access
Random dialing
Interviewer bias
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10-26

9-26

Sources of Error

Measurement
Questions

Participant

Interviewer

10-27

9-27

Sources of
Error in
Survey
Research

9-28

Outsourcing

Data
Analysis

Omnibus

Sampling
via Panels

Survey
Tasks

Survey
Fielding

9-29

Ethical Issues and their Solutions
Informed
Consent

Deception
Confidentiality
Quality

Pretest

Safety

Training

9-30

Informed Consent

9-31

Key Terms
 Acquiescence bias
 Communication approach
 Computer-administered

telephone survey
 Computer-assisted
personal interviewing
(CAP
 Computer-assisted self
interview (CASI)
 Computer-assisted
telephone interviewing
(CATI)

 Deception
 Individual depth

interview
 Informed Consent
 Intercept interview
 Interviewer error
 Noncontact rate
 Nonresponse error
 Panel
 Physical presence bias
 Probe
10-32

9-32

Key Terms (cont.)
 Random dialing
 Refusal rate
 Response error
 Self-administered

 Survey via personal

interview
 Telephone survey

survey
 Social desirability bias
 Structured interview
 Survey

10-33

9-33

Chapter 10
STAGE 2: MEASUREMENT FOUNDATIONS

10-1

Learning Objectives
Understand . . .
The distinction between measuring objects,
properties, and indicants of properties.
The similarities and differences between the four
scale types used in measurement and when each
is used.
The four major sources of measurement error.
The criteria for evaluating good measurement.

10-2

Review of Terms

Concept
Customer
Satisfaction

Construct
Motivation

Variable
Age

Operational
Definition
a definition for a construct
stated in terms of specific
criteria for testing or
measurement

10-3

Measurement
Select
measurable phenomena
Develop a set of
mapping rules; scheme for assigning numbers

Example: For customer satisfaction, you might use a Likert scale where
1 represents
“very dissatisfied” and
5 represents “very satisfied.”

Apply the mapping rule
to each phenomenon

10-4

Types of Scales
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

10-5

Levels of Measurement
Nominal

Classification

Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

10-6

Nominal Scales
Mutually Exclusive
Collectively Exhaustive Categories
Classification Only

10-7

Levels of Measurement
Nominal
Ordinal

Classification
Classification
Order

interval
Ratio

10-8

Ordinal Scales

Nominal Scale Characteristics
+ Order
Implies greater than or less than

10-9

Interval Scales

Ordinal Scale Characteristics
Equality of interval
Equality of distance between
numbers

10-10

Levels of Measurement
Nominal

Classification

Ordinal

Classification
Order

Interval

Classification
Order

Distance

Ratio

10-11

Ratio Scales

Interval Scale Characteristics
Absolute Zero

Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles in a
substance are essentially motionless. There’s no way to slow
them down further, so there can be no lower temperature
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10-12

Levels of Measurement
Nominal

Classification

Ordinal

Classification
Order

Interval

Classification
Order

Distance

Ratio

Classification
Order

Distance
Natural Origin

10-13

From
Investigative
to
Measurement
Questions

10-14

Recoding
Adjust variable
after data collection
Apply new mapping rules
Only REDUCE variable
power
Less powerful
statistical analysis

10-15

Sources of Error

Participant

Situation

Measurer

Instrument

10-16

Characteristics of Good Measurement tool

Validity
Practicality is
concerned with a wide
range of factors of
economy, convenience,
and interpretability

Characteristics

Practicality

Reliability

10-17

Validity Determinants

Content

Criterion

Construct

10-18

Increasing Content Validity

Literature
Search

Content

Expert
Interviews

Etc.

Question
Database
Group
Interviews

10-19

Construct Validity
Construct validity concerns how well a set of indicators represent or reflect
a concept that is not directly measurable

Theory

Measurement
Instrument

Discriminate: the extent to which a test is not related to other tests that measure different
constructs. E-G: the results of a math test may have a strong positive correlation with those of
other math tests (high convergent validity), but there could also be some correlation with the
results of a spelling test (low discriminant validity).
Convergent Validity: Suppose you use two different methods to collect data about
anger: observation and a self-report questionnaire. If the scores of the two methods are
similar, this suggests that they indeed measure the same construct. A high correlation
between the two test scores suggests convergent validity.
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Restricted – ‫م قيد‬

10-20

Increasing Construct Validity
New measure of trust
Known measure of trust
Empathy measure
Credibility measure

10-21

Judging Criterion Validity

Relevance

Freedom from bias

10-22

Summary of Validity Estimates

10-23

Understanding
Validity and
Reliability

10-24

Reliability Estimates
repeated measurements of the same
person with the same instrument

Stability
how well the items on a test measure the
same construct.

Internal
Consistency

Equivalence
consistency of results across different
forms of the same test or different
observers.

10-25

Summary of Reliability Estimates

10-26

Practicality

Economy
Economical/Cost covered

Convenience
Easy to administer

Interpretability
Make interpretation easy

10-27

Key Terms
1128

Internal validity
 Construct
 Content
 Criterion related

Interval scale
Mapping rules
Measurement
Nominal scale
Objects

Practicality
Properties
Ratio scale
Recoding
Reliability

 Equivalence
 Internal consistency
 Stability

Validity

10-28

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