Management Question

‫المملكة العربية السعودية‬
‫وزارة التعليم‬
‫الجامعة السعودية اإللكترونية‬
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Ministry of Education
Saudi Electronic University
College of Administrative and Financial Sciences
Assignment 1
Knowledge Management (MGT 403)
Due Date: 13/07/2024 @ 23:59 (End of 3rd week)
Course Name:
Student’s Name:
Course Code: MGT403
Student’s ID Number:
Semester: Summer
CRN:
Academic Year:2023-24-Summer
For Instructor’s Use only
Instructor’s Name:
Students’ Grade:
Marks Obtained/Out of 15
Level of Marks: High/Middle/Low
General Instructions – PLEASE READ THEM CAREFULLY
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The Assignment must be submitted on Blackboard (WORD format only) via allocated
folder.
Assignments submitted through email will not be accepted.
Students are advised to make their work clear and well presented, marks may be reduced
for poor presentation. This includes filling your information on the cover page.
Students must mention question number clearly in their answer.
Late submission will NOT be accepted.
Avoid plagiarism, the work should be in your own words, copying from students or other
resources without proper referencing will result in ZERO marks. No exceptions.
All answered must be typed using Times New Roman (size 12, double-spaced) font. No
pictures containing text will be accepted and will be considered plagiarism).
Submissions without this cover page will NOT be accepted.
Learning Outcomes:
1. LO 1.1: Recognize the overall knowledge management processes, concepts, goals
and strategies within the context of organization.
2. LO 1.2: Describe how valuable individual, group and organizational knowledge is
managed throughout the knowledge management cycle.
Assignment Question(s):
This Assignment is a report-based assignment. Read chapter 1, 2 and 3 thoroughly to
answer the Assignment questions.
The Assignment structure is as follows:
A. Introduction:
➢ The introduction part must clearly highlight the history of knowledge
management. (Support your answer with references) (3 Marks)
➢ Highlight the role of Knowledge management in present day organisations and
provide examples. (3 Marks)
B. Knowledge management cycle:
➢ Discus the concept of knowledge and how is it different from Data, and
Information. (3 Marks)
➢ Briefly describe the various types of Knowledge management cycles. (3
Marks)
➢ Discuss the role of Knowledge management cycle for the development of
organisations in a sustainable way. (3 Marks)
➢ Do not forget to support your answers with sufficient references.
➢ Use concepts and terminologies related to the course in your answers.
Knowledge Management in Theory
and Practice
Lecture 2: The Knowledge
Management Cycle
Overview
 Major KM Cycles
Knowledge-Information Cycle (ACIIC
Knowledge Economy)
◼ Meyer and Zack KM Cycle
◼ Bukowitz and Wiliams
◼ McElroy KM Cycle
◼ Wiig KM Cycle
◼
2
KM Cycle Processes
 Knowledge Capture
 Knowledge Creation
 Knowledge Codification
 Knowledge Sharing
 Knowledge Access
 Knowledge Application
 Knowledge Re-Use
3
Knowledge-Information Cycle*
 The ability to manage knowledge is
becoming ever more crucial in the
knowledge economy
Where creation and diffusion of knowledge are
increasingly important factors in competitiveness
◼ Knowledge is a commodity now
◼
⚫ Embedded in products, especially hi-tech products
⚫ Embedded in the tacit knowledge of highly mobile
employees
* Australian Centre for Innovation and International Competitiveness www.aciic.org.au
4
Knowledge Economy & the
Knowledge- Information Cycle
 Some paradoxes of knowledge:
Using knowledge does not consume it
◼ Transferring knowledge does not lose it
◼ Knowledge is abundant, but the ability to use it
is scarce
◼ Producing knowledge resists organization
◼ Much of knowledge walks out the door at the
end of the day
◼
5
Knowledge -Information Cycle/2
 Need to systematically identify, generate, acquire,
diffuse, and capture the benefits of knowledge that
provide a strategic advantage
 Clear distinction must be made between
information – which is digitizable, and knowledge –
which exists only in intelligent systems
◼
Knowledge-information cycle looks at how information
is transformed into knowledge and vice versa via
creation and application processes
6
Knowledge-Information Cycle/3
7
Knowledge-Information Cycle
Processes
 Establish appropriate information management systems and
processes
 Identify and locate knowledge and knowledge sources
within the organization
 Code knowledge (translate knowledge into explicit
information) to allow re-use economies to operate
 Create networks, practices, and incentives to facilitate
person-to-person knowledge transfer where the focus is on
the unique solution
 Add personal knowledge management to the organizational
repertoire (“corporate memory”)
8
M. Zack KM Cycle
9
Zack KM Cycle/2
10
Zack KM Cycle/3
 The Meyers Zack model is an informationprocessing model
Adapted to knowledge content
◼ Refinement step is a crucial one
◼ Also – the notion of renewal
◼ Based on notion of an information asset
◼
11
KM Cycle Processes
 Knowledge Capture
 Knowledge Creation
 Knowledge Codification and refinement
 Knowledge Sharing
 Knowledge Access
 Knowledge Application
 Knowledge Re-Use
12
McElroy KM Cycle
Individual &
Group
Learning
Formulate
Knowledge
Claim
Knowledge
Claim
Formulation
Codified
Knowledge
Claim
Knowledge
Claim
Evaluation
Information
Acquisition
13
McElroy KM Cycle/2
Information about:
•Surviving knowledge claim
•Falsified knowledge claim
•Undecided knowledge claim
Knowledge
Production
Organizational
Knowledge
14
McElroy KM Cycle/3
 Organizational knowledge is held collectively in
both individuals and groups
 Knowledge use either meets or fails to meet
business expectations
 Matches lead to reuse
 Mis-matches lead to adjustments in business
processing behaviour (learning)
 Clear step where knowledge is evaluated and a
conscious decision is made as to whether or not it
should be incorporated into organizational memory
15
KM Cycle Processes
 Knowledge Capture
 Knowledge Creation
 Knowledge Codification & Refinement
 Knowledge Sharing
 Knowledge Access
 Knowledge Application
 Knowledge Evaluation & Re-Use
16
Bukowitz and Williams
ASSESS
GET
USE
LEARN
Knowledge
CONTRIBUTE
BUILD/SUSTAIN
OR: DIVEST
17
Bukowitz and Williams /2
 Get: seeking out information
Tacit and explicit
◼ Being selective when faced with information
overload
◼
 Use: combine content in new and interesting
ways to foster innovation in the organization
 Learn: learning from experiences
◼
Creation of an organizational memory
18
Bukowitz and Williams/3
 Contribute: motivate employees to post
what they have learned to a knowledge base
◼
Link individual learning and knowledge to
organizational memory
 Assess: evaluation of intellectual capital
◼
Identify assets, metrics to assess them and link
these directly to business objectives
19
Bukowitz and Williams/4
 Build and Sustain: allocate resources to
maintain knowledge base
◼
Contribute to viability, competitiveness
 Divest: should not keep assets that are no
longer of any business value
Transfer outside the organization e.g.
outsourcing
◼ Patent, spin off companies etc.
◼
20
KM Cycle Processes
 Knowledge Capture
 Knowledge Creation & Contribution
 Selectively filter contributions
 Knowledge Codification & Refinement
 Knowledge Sharing
 Knowledge Access
 Knowledge Learning &Application
 Knowledge Evaluation & Re-Use OR Divest
21
Wiig KM Cycle
 Processes by which we build and use knowledge
As individuals
◼ As teams (communities)
◼ As organizations
◼
 How we:
Build knowledge
◼ Hold knowledge
◼ Pool knowledge
◼ Apply knowledge
◼
 Discrete tasks yet often interdependent & parallel
22
Wiig KM Cycle/2
Build Knowledge
Hold Knowledge
Pool Knowledge
Use Knowledge
•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers
•In people
•In tangible forms (e.g. books)
•KM systems (intranet, dbase)
•Groups of people- brainstorm
•In work context
•Embedded in work processes
23
Wiig KM Cycle/3
Build Knowledge
Hold Knowledge
Pool Knowledge
Use Knowledge
•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers
•In people
•In tangible forms (e.g. books)
•KM systems (intranet, dbase)
•Groups of people- brainstorm
•In work context
•Embedded in work processes
24
Building Knowledge
 Learning from all kinds of sources to:
Obtain Knowledge
◼ Analyze Knowledge
◼ Reconstruct (Synthesize) Knowledge
◼ Codify and Model Knowledge
◼ Organize Knowledge
◼
25
Obtaining Knowledge
 Create new knowledge
Research and development projects
◼ Innovations, experimentation, trial and error
◼ Reasoning with existing knowledge
◼ Hire new people
◼
 Import knowledge from existing sources
Elicit knowledge from experts
◼ Acquire from manuals, books, other documents
◼ Transfer people between departments
◼
 Observe the real world
26
Analyzing Knowledge
 Extract what appears to be knowledge from
obtained materials
Analyze transcripts, reports about new concepts
◼ Listen to explanation and select key concepts
◼
 Abstract extracted material
 Identify patterns to describe, estimate
 Create explicit relations between knowledge
elements (e.g. causal, correlation, contribution nets)
 Verify that extracted content is correct through
observation
27
Reconstruct (Synthesize)
Knowledge
 Generalize analyzed materials to obtain broader
principles
 Generate hypotheses to explain observed behaviour
in terms of causal factors
 Establish conformance between new and existing
knowledge (validity, coherence)
 Update total knowledge pool by incorporating new
knowledge
◼
Discard old, false, outdated, no longer relevant
knowledge
28
Codify and Model Knowledge
 Represent knowledge in our minds by building
mental models
 Model knowledge by assembling declarations and
relational statements into a coherent whole
 Document knowledge in books and manuals
 Encode knowledge into knowledge bases
(computerized KBS tools)
29
Organize Knowledge
 Organize new knowledge for specific uses
◼
E.g. sequence for diagnostics, help desk, FAQs
 Organize new knowledge according to an
established framework
Categorize according to organizational standards
◼ Taxonomy, ontology, official list of key words,
attributes, linguistic/translation guidelines….
◼
30
Building Knowledge Examples
 Market research
Focus groups
◼ Surveys
◼ Competitive intelligence
◼ Data mining on customer preferences
◼
 Synthesis of lessons learned (what worked, what
didn’t) – generate hypotheses
Validate using customer satisfaction questionnaire and
interviews
◼ Document as training manual for marketing to this
specific target market
◼
31
Wiig KM Cycle/4
Build Knowledge
Hold Knowledge
Pool Knowledge
Use Knowledge
•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers
•In people
•In tangible forms (e.g. books)
•KM systems (intranet, dbase)
•Groups of people- brainstorm
•In work context
•Embedded in work processes
32
Holding Knowledge
 In people’s minds, books, computerized knowledge
bases, etc.
Remember knowledge – internalize it
◼ Cumulate knowledge in repositories (encode it)
◼ Embed knowledge in repositories (within procedures)
◼ Archive knowledge
◼
⚫ Create scientific library, subscriptions
⚫ Retire older knowledge from active status in repository (e.g. store
in another medium for potential future retrieval – cd roms, etc.)
33
Holding Knowledge Examples
 Company owns a number of proprietary methods
and recipes for making products
 Some knowledge documented in the form of
research reports, technical papers, patents
 Other tacit knowledge can be elicited and
embedded in the knowledge base in the form of
know-how, tips, tricks of the trade
Videotapes of specialized experts explaining various
procedures
◼ Task support systems
◼
34
Wiig KM Cycle/5
Build Knowledge
Hold Knowledge
Pool Knowledge
Use Knowledge
•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers
•In people
•In tangible forms (e.g. books)
•KM systems (intranet, dbase)
•Groups of people- brainstorm
•In work context
•Embedded in work processes
35
Pooling Knowledge
 Can take many forms such as discussions, expert networks
and formal work teams
 Pooling knowledge consists of:
◼ Coordinating knowledge of collaborative teams
◼ Creating expert networks to identify who knows what
◼ Assembling knowledge – background references from
libraries and other knowledge sources
◼ Accessing and retrieving knowledge
⚫ Consult with knowledgeable people about a difficult problem,
peer reviews, second opinions
⚫ Obtain knowledge directly from a repository – advice,
explanations
36
Pooling Knowledge Examples
 An employee realizes he or she does not have the
necessary knowledge and know-how to solve a
particular problem
 She contact others in the company who have had
similar problems to solve, consults the knowledge
repository and makes use of an expert advisory
system to help her out
 She organizes all this information and has subject
matter experts validate the content
37
Wiig KM Cycle/6
Build Knowledge
Hold Knowledge
Pool Knowledge
Use Knowledge
•Personal experience
•Formal education and training
•Intelligence sources
•Media, books, peers
•In people
•In tangible forms (e.g. books)
•KM systems (intranet, dbase)
•Groups of people- brainstorm
•In work context
•Embedded in work processes
38
Using Knowledge
 Use established knowledge to perform routine tasks, make
standard products, provide standard services
 Use general knowledge to survey exceptional situations,
identify problem, consequences
 Use knowledge to describe situation and scope problem
 Select relevant special knowledge to handle situation,
identify knowledge sources
 Observe and characterize the situation, collect and organize
information
 Analyze situation, determine patterns, compare with others,
judge what needs to be done
39
Using Knowledge (con’t)
 Synthesize alternative solutions, identify options, create new
solutions
 Evaluate potential alternatives, appraise advantages and
disadvantages of each, determine risks and benefits of each
 Use knowledge to decide what to do, which alternative to
select
◼
Rank alternatives & test that each is feasible, acceptable
 Implement selected alternative
◼
◼
Choose and assemble tools needed
Prepare implementation plan, distribute it, authorize team to proceed
with this solution
40
Using Knowledge – Examples
 Expert mechanic encounters a new problem
 Gathers info to diagnose and analyze
 Synthesizes a list of possible solutions with the
tools he knows are available to him
 Decides on the best option and uses it to fix the part
 Non-routine tasks are approached in a different way
than familiar, standard ones
41
KM Cycle Processes
 Knowledge Capture
 Knowledge Creation & Contribution
 Knowledge Codification & Refinement (inc. Sanitize) &
Reconstruction (e.g. synthesis)
 Selectively filter contributions
 Knowledge Modeling
 Knowledge Sharing & Pooling
 Knowledge Organization &Access
 Knowledge Learning &Application
 Knowledge Evaluation & Re-Use OR Divest
42
Five Critical Knowledge
Functions for each KM Cycle Step
 Type of knowledge or skill involved
◼
Securities trading expertise
 Business use of that knowledge
◼
Increase the value of a retirement fund portfolio
 Constraint that prevents knowledge from being fully
utilized
◼
Expert will retire at the end of the year with no successor
 Opportunities, alternatives to manage that knowledge
◼
Elicit and codify knowledge before person retires
 Expected value-added of improving the situation
◼
Valuable knowledge is not lost to organization
43
Group activity
 In small groups, discuss the following:
What knowledge object would you want next
year’s class to have? To re-use?
◼ Go through the KM processes and see how you
would capture and make available to them
◼ What would you have liked to have known
before coming to our program? Anything
unexpected? Surprises? Things you had to
discover….?
◼
Can continue discussion online…
44
Some topics from previous
classes….
 Workload
 Student life in a new city
 State of the profession – – wiki
 Alumni, recent graduates, job statistics
 Course information – satisfied with information that was
mailed out, that is on the website
 Specific course information
◼
◼
tailored so students coming from diverse background (work, undergrad
degree, technological know needed for course, theoretical content etc.
provide demographic info on the incoming class
45
Next:
 Selected knowledge management models
46
Knowledge Management in Theory
and Practice
Lecture 3: Selected Knowledge
Management Models
Week 3: Knowledge
Management Models
 KM Models
Choo, Weick
◼ Nonaka and Takeuchi
◼ K. Wiig
◼ Boisot
◼ Beer and Bennet & Bennet
◼ EFQM – European Foundation for Quality Model
◼ Inukshuk Model
◼
2
Choo and Weick KM Model
 Knowing Organization Framework (Choo, C.W.
1998) – 2nd edition 2006
Model of KM that stresses sense making, knowledge
creation and decision making
◼ How to select information elements that could feed into
the organizational actions
◼ Organizational action results from the concentration and
absorption of information from the external environment
into each successive circle.
◼ Each circle has an outside stimulus or trigger
◼
3
Choo’s KM Model
Streams of
experience
1
Sense
Making
Shared meanings
Shared meanings
Knowledge
Creating
2
New knowledge,
new capabilities
Decision
Making
3
Goal-directed adaptive
behavior
External
Information
& Knowledge
Next
knowing
cycle
4
Choo’s KM Model/2
1.
Meaning is socially constructed as information is filtered
through the sense making behaviour
2. Individuals create new knowledge about the external world
through the transformation of their individual knowledge
into shareable knowledge and information
3. A threshold is reached at some specific point when the
organization as a whole is prepared to act in a rational
manner and choose an alternative based upon the
organizations goals, objectives & strategy
4. Start the next cycle when the action chosen changes the
external environment and impacts ongoing decisions
related to the original choice
5
Choo’s KM Model/3
Streams of
experience
1
Sense
Making
Shared meanings
Shared meanings
Knowledge
Creating
2
New knowledge,
new capabilities
Decision
Making
3
Goal-directed adaptive
behavior
External
Information
& Knowledge
Next
knowing
cycle
6
Sense Making
 Attempts to make sense of the information
streaming in from the external environment
 Priorities are identified and used to filter the
information
 Common interpretation is constructed by
individuals from the exchange and
negotiation of information fragments
combined with their previous experiences
7
Sense Making (con’t)
 Karl Weick: theory of sense making to
describe how chaos is transformed into
sensible and orderly processes in an
organization through the shared
interpretation of individuals
 Loosely coupled systems where individuals
construct their own representation of reality
 Compare current with past events
8
Weick Theory of Sense Making
 Sense making process in an organization
consists of four tightly integrated processes:
Ecological change
◼ Enactment
◼ Selection
◼ Retention
◼
9
Ecological Change
 A change in the environment external to the
organization disturbs the flow of information
to the participants
 This triggers an ecological change in the
organization
 Organizational actors enact their
environment by attempting to closely
examine elements of the environment
10
Enactment
 People try to:
Construct
◼ Rearrange
◼ Single out
◼ Demolish
◼
 Many of the objective features of their
surroundings, make it less random, more orderly,
by literally creating their own constraints or rules
 This clarifies the data & issues to be used for the
selection process
11
Selection & Retention
 Individuals attempt to interpret the rationale for the
observed and enacted changes by making selections
 The retention process furnishes the organization
with an organizational memory of successful sense
making experiences
Can be reused in the future to interpret new changes &
stabilize individual interpretations into an organizational
view of events and actions
◼ Reduces uncertainty and ambiguity associated with
unclear, poorly defined info
◼
12
Choo’s KM Model/4
Streams of
experience
1
Sense
Making
Shared meanings
Shared meanings
Knowledge
Creating
2
New knowledge,
new capabilities
Decision
Making
3
Goal-directed adaptive
behavior
External
Information
& Knowledge
Next
knowing
cycle
13
Knowledge Creating
 Transformation of personal knowledge
between individuals
Dialogue
◼ Discourse
◼ Sharing
◼ Storytelling
◼
14
Knowledge Creating (con’t)
 Directed by a knowledge vision of AS IS (current)
and TO BE (future)
 Widens the spectrum of potential choices in
decision making through new knowledge and new
competences
 The result feeds the decision making process with
innovative strategies that extend the organization’s
capability to make informed, rational decisions
 Choo draws upon the Nonaka & Takeuchi model
for a theory of knowledge creation
15
Choo’s KM Model/5
Streams of
experience
1
Sense
Making
Shared meanings
Shared meanings
Knowledge
Creating
2
New knowledge,
new capabilities
Decision
Making
3
Goal-directed adaptive
behavior
External
Information
& Knowledge
Next
knowing
cycle
16
Decision Making
 Rational decision making models used to identify
and evaluate alternatives by processing the
information and knowledge collected to date
 Variety of decision making theories
Theory of games and economic behaviour
◼ Chaos theory, complexity theory, emergent theory
◼ Bounded rationality theory
◼ Garbage can theory
◼
17
Bounded Rationality Theory
 First proposed by H. Simon a limited or
constrained rationality:
◼
The capacity of the human mind for formulating
and solving complex problems is very small
compared with the size of the problems whose
solution is required for objectively rational
behaviour in the real world – – or even for a
reasonable approximation to such objective
rationality (Simon, H.A 1957, p. 198)
18
Bounded Rationality Theory/2
 When confronted with a highly complex world, the
mind constructs a simple mental model of reality
and tries to work within that model
 Even though the model may have weaknesses, the
individual tries to behave rationally within it
 Individuals can be bound in a decisional process by:
Limited in intelligence, skills, habits and responsiveness
◼ Availability of personal information and knowledge
◼ Values and norms which may be different from the org.
◼
19
Bounded Rationality Theory/3
 This theory has long been accepted in
organizational and management sciences
 Characterized by individuals’ uses of:
Limited information analysis, evaluation, and
processing
◼ Shortcuts and rules of thumb (heuristics)
◼ “Satisficing” (good enough, 80/20 rule, not
necessarily optimization)
◼
20
The Nonaka-Takeuchi Model
of Knowledge Management
“In an economy where the only certainty is
uncertainty, the one sure source of lasting
competitive advantage is knowledge.”
I. Nonaka
The problem is that few managers understand how to
manage the knowledge-creating company
Focus on ‘hard’ or quantifiable knowledge
See KM as information processing machine
21
Nonaka & Takeuchi/2
 The authors studied successful Japanese companies
to try to identify how they achieved creativity and
innovation
Found it was more than mechanistically processing
objective information
◼ Depending on highly subjective insights
◼
⚫ Slogans, metaphors, symbols
◼
Holistic model of knowledge creation and management
of “serendipity”
22
Nonaka & Takeuchi:
The Spiral of Knowledge
 Knowledge creation always begins with the
individual
Brilliant researcher has an insight that leads to a new
patent
◼ Middle manager has intuition of market trends and
becomes the catalyst for an important new product
concept
◼ Shop floor worker draws on years of experience to come
up with a process innovation that saves $$$$
◼
 In each case, an individual’s personal knowledge is
translated into valuable organizational knowledge
23
The Basis for the Nonaka –
Takeuchi Model
 Making personal knowledge available to others in
the company is at the core of this model of KM
It takes place continuously
◼ It takes place at all levels of the organization
◼
⚫ Individual
⚫ Groups
⚫ Company-wide
◼
Can be unexpected
⚫ E.g. home bread-making machine innovation
24
Explicit vs. Tacit Knowledge
Explicit Knowledge
Tacit Knowledge
files
80-85%
15-20%
active
passive
25
Nonaka and Takeuchi Model
Tacit
Explicit
Tacit
Explicit
..
26
Nonaka & Takeuchi – the
Knowledge Spiral Model
Tacit
Explicit
Tacit
Socialization
Brainstorming
Coaching
Explicit
Externalization
Capturing
Sharing
Internalization:
Understanding
Learning
Combination:
Systemizing
Classifying
27
Tacit to Tacit Transformation
 Individual to individual(s)
Apprenticeship
◼ Mentoring
◼ Observation
◼ Shadowing
◼
Imitation
◼ Practice
◼ Brainstorming
◼ Coaching
◼
Apprentice may learn from the master, but the knowledge
remains tacit & is not leveraged across the organization
28
Tacit to Explicit
Transformation
 Able to articulate the knowledge, know-how
 Can be written, videotape, audiotape format
 Often need intermediary to capture this
knowledge – a journalist, a workshop…
It now exists in a tangible form
◼ It can now be more easily shared with others and
leveraged throughout the organization
◼
29
Explicit to Explicit
Transformation
 Can combine discrete pieces of tangible
knowledge into a new form
E.g. a synthesis in the form of a report, a
comparative evaluation, a new database
◼ Simply a new combination of existing
knowledge – no new knowledge is created
◼
It is easiest to convert from the same type of knowledge – tacit
to tacit and explicit to explicit – harder to change the type
30
Explicit to Tacit
Transformation
 As new knowledge is shared throughout the
organization, employees now begin to
internalize it
They use it, broaden it, extend it and reframe
their own existing tacit knowledge base
◼ They learn – they do their jobs differently now
◼
31
The KM Spiral
 First we learn something through socialization (e.g. being
apprenticed to a master)
 Next we translate this into a tangible format that can be
more easily communicated to others (externalization)
 This knowledge is then standardized using templates, coding
rules etc (new combination)
 Finally, team members enrich their own tacit knowledge
bases by adding new knowledge and skills (internalization)
 They then share this new knowledge tacitly (back to
socialization and the spiral continues)
Tacit to Explicit and Explicit to Tacit are the key steps
32
From Metaphor to Model
 Externalization (tacit to explicit) and Internalization (explicit
to tacit) both require a high degree of personal commitment
 Involves
◼
◼
◼
Mental models
Personal beliefs and values
Re-inventing yourself as well as the organization
 Metaphor is a good way of expressing the “inexpressible”
◼
◼
◼
◼
◼
Slogans, symbols
Fables, stories, allegories
analogies
Models – final step, no contradictions, consistent, systematic, logical
“two ideas in a single phrase”
33
From Chaos to Concept
 How to structure metaphors, models and analogies
in an organizational KM design
 1st principle:
◼
Built-in redundancy – make sure there is shared
overlapping information
⚫ Easier to articulate
⚫ Easier to share
⚫ Easier to internalize
◼
Can be done with internal competing groups, built-in
rotational strategy and free access to company
information via single integrated database or k-base
34
From Chaos to Concept (con’t)
 Need to orient ensuring chaos created by the
inevitable discrepancies in meaning that occur
Provide a conceptual framework that helps them make
sense of their experiences
◼ Conceptual umbrella for key concepts
◼ Domain ontology – categorization of the organization’s
knowledge base
◼ Standards set by the company re. strategic value of
knowledge
◼
35
Recommended Solutions
Tacit
Explicit
Tacit
Explicit
Recommendations
1.
2.
3.
Recommendations
1.
2.
3.
Recommendations
1.
2.
3.
Recommendations
1.
2.
3.
36
K. Wiig KM Model
 For knowledge to be useful and organized it
must be organized
 Organize knowledge differently depending
on what knowledge will be used for
 In our minds, we store knowledge as a
semantic network with multiple links
◼
We choose the appropriate perspective
depending on the cognitive task at hand
37
Semantic Network Example:
Four Perspectives on a Car
38
Commute
39
Maintain
40
Vacation
41
Driving
42
K. Wiig KM Model/2
 Organize knowledge so that it can be
accessed and retrieved using multiple paths
 Useful dimensions to consider:
Completeness
◼ Connectedness
◼ Congruency
◼ Perspective and purpose
◼
43
Completeness
 How much of the relevant knowledge is available
from this source?
Human mind
◼ Knowledge base
◼
 We need to know that it is there
◼
May be complete in the sense that all that is available
about the subject is there but no one knows it is there &
therefore cannot make use of it
44
Connectedness
 There are well-understood and defined
relations between the different knowledge
sections
 There are very few knowledge items that are
totally disconnected from the others
 The more connected the knowledge base, the
greater its value
45
Congruency
 A knowledge base is congruent when all facts,
concepts, perspectives, values, judgments and
associative and relational links between the mental
objects are consistent
There are no logical inconsistencies, no internal conflicts,
no misunderstandings
◼ Consistency in concept definitions
◼ Needs to be constantly ‘fine-tuned’
◼
46
Perspective and Purpose
 When we ‘know’ something, we often know
it from a particular perspective or for a
specific use in mind
 We organize much of our knowledge using
perspective and purpose
Just-in-time knowledge retrieval
◼ Just-enough – on-demand basis
◼
47
Degrees of Internalization
1.
NOVICE: Ignorant or barely aware:
Not aware of what the know or how it an be used
2.
BEGINNER: Know that the knowledge exists:
Aware of where the knowledge is and where to get it but cannot
reason with it
3.
COMPETENT: Knows about the knowledge:
Can use and reason with the knowledge, given external knowledge
bases such as books, people to help
4.
EXPERT: Knows the knowledge:
Holds the knowledge in memory, understands where it applies,
reasons with it without outside help
5.
MASTER: Internalizes knowledge fully:
Has deep understanding with full integration into values, judgments,
& consequences of using that knowledge
48
Hierarchy of Knowledge
Knowledge
Explicit
Embedded
Coded, accessible
Coded, inaccessible
Un-coded, inaccessible
Passive Active
Passive Active
Passive Active
Library
books,
manuals
Products Info systems
Technols. Services
Isolated
facts,
recent
memory
Experts
KBs
Tacit
Habits
Skills
Proced.
knowledge
49
Three Forms of Knowledge
 Public Knowledge
◼
Explicit, taught and shared routinely, generally available
in the public domain
 Shared Expertise
◼
Proprietary knowledge assets exclusively held by
knowledge workers and shared in their work or
embedded in technology, often communicated by
specialized languages & representations.
 Personal Knowledge
◼
Least accessible but most complete, tacit knowledge in
people’s minds, used non-consciously in work, play and
daily life.
50
Four Types of Knowledge
 Factual
◼
Facts, data, causal chains
 Conceptual
◼
Perspectives, concepts, gestalt e.g. social constructivist
view of learning
 Expectational
◼
Judgments, hypotheses, predictions
 Methodological
◼
Reasoning, strategies, methods, techniques
51
Wiig’s KM Matrix
Knowledge Type
Knowledge Factual
Form
Conceptual Expectat.
Methodol.
Public
measure
reading
stability
balance
When supply
> demand,
price drops
Look for
temperatures
outside norm
Shared
forecast
analysis
Market is hot
A little water
in the mix is
ok
Check for
past failures
Personal
‘right’
texture, color
Company
track record
Hunch that
the analyst is
wrong
What is the
recent trend?
52
Boisot KM Model
 The more easily data can be structured and
converted into information, the more
diffusible it becomes
 The less data that has been so structured
requires a shared context for its diffusion, the
more diffusible it becomes
53
Boisot KM Cycle/2
explicit
codified
tacit
uncodified
abstract
concrete
undiffused
diffused
54
Complex Adaptive System KM
Models
 Key processes include:
Understanding
◼ Creating new ideas
◼ Solving problems
◼ Making decisions
◼ Taking actions to achieve desired results
◼
55
Complex Adaptive System KM
Models/2

Based on 8 emergent properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Organizational intelligence
Shared purpose
Selectivity
Optimum complexity
Permeable boundaries
Knowledge centricity
Flow
Multidimensionality
56
Complex Adaptive System KM
Models/3
Organizational
Intelligence
Shared
Purpose
Multidimensionality
Flow
Knowledge
Centricity
Optimum
Complexity
Flow
Selectivity
Permeable Barriers
creativity
complexity
change
57
EFQM overview
 How can KM be used to achieve
organizational goals?
KM is positioned as an organizational enabler
◼ KM is used to achieve organizational goals and
not KM-oriented goals
◼
⚫ Never a good idea to do KM for KM’s sake!
58
EFQM components
People
Leadership
Policy &
Stategy
Partnerships
& Resources
Enablers
Processes
Key
Performance
Results
(people,
customer,
society)
Results
59
Inukshuk model
 Developed to help Canadian government
departments manage their knowledge better
An Inukshuk is used to mark paths by First
National people
◼ Derived from quantitative research and a review
of existing models
◼ Uses the SECI (Nonaka and Takeuchi) model for
the process piece and emphasizes the role played
by people
◼
60
Inukshuk components
Measurement
Tacit Knowledge
Explicit Knowledge
Socialization
Externalization
Internalization
Combination
CULTURE
TECHNOLOGY
Leadership
61
Recap: Knowledge
Management Models
 Choo, Weick – – sensemaking of external, knowledge
creation, decision making
 Nonaka and Takeuchi – – internal knowledge spiral –
knowledge transformations
 Wiig – knowledge organized as a semantic network for
multiple perspectives – typology
 Boisot – – degree of abstractness of knowledge, extent to
which knowledge has been/can be diffused
 Beer and Bennet & Bennet – – organization as a viable
system, organizational intelligence, extent to which
organization is permeable to knowledge flows
 Inukshuk model:
62
Next:
 Knowledge Capture and Codification
63

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