Description
I need help completing a discussion board post for my Management course (Operation Management). Below are the exact requirements provided by my instructor:
Description:
In this module, you will learn about product and service design and capacity planning for products and services. Without the capacity to produce products or deliver services, the organization cannot meet customer and client demand.
Learning Outcomes:
- Analyze how decisions made in product and service design impact operations management.
- Evaluate how decisions made in product and service design impact the organization’s overall success.
- Appraise how capacity planning impacts the ability of the production system to perform effectively.
- Examine the reliability computations value for operations management.
Instructions
Capacity and Reliability Simulation – Smartphone Assembly Plant
Assume a Riyadh-based smartphone manufacturer faces a 30% demand surge and apply your strategic capacity planning skills to save the Smartphone Assembly Plant.
1. Capacity Planning Appraisal:
- Calculate the design capacity vs. effective capacity using production data (e.g., 20,000 units/month design capacity vs. 15,000 units/month effective capacity after accounting for maintenance).
- Recommend adjustments based on capacity analysis.
2. Reliability Impact:
- Compute system reliability for a production line with three serial components e.g, R”total” = R1 x R2 x R3 where each component has 95% reliability).
- Propose redundancy strategies to achieve 99% overall reliability and evaluate cost implications.
3. Operational Strategy:
- Draft a memo linking design decisions to production efficiency and profit margins.
Assignment Requirements:
Your well-written paper should meet the following requirements:
- Length: The paper should be Six Pages in length (6), excluding the title and reference pages.
- Formatting: Follow academic writing standards and APA style guidelines.
- Sources & Citations: Support your submission with course material concepts, principles, and theories from the textbook and at least Three (3) scholarly, peer-reviewed journal articles. Proper APA citation is required.
- Originality Check: You are strongly encouraged to check all assignments for originality using Turnitin before submission.
- Plagiarism Policy: Plagiarism is NOT tolerated. Plagiarism is strictly prohibited. Assignments with more than 15% similarity to existing work will receive a zero. Repeated offenses may lead to termination.
- Grading Rubric: Review the grading rubric to understand how your assignment will be evaluated.
- Course Alignment: Ensure your discussion incorporates textbook concepts, principles, and theories, aligning with class lectures and avoiding the use of advanced material not yet covered in the course.
- Discuss the concepts, principles, and theories from your textbook. Be sure to cite the textbook and use the lectures provided so that the analysis aligns with the material we’ve covered so far in the course.
Required Readings:
- Chapters 4 & 4S in Operations Management
- Chapter 4 & 4S PowerPoint Presentation
- Joachimiak-Lechman, K. Life cycle perspective in design and product development. Engineering Management in Production and Services, 2024, Sciendo, vol. 16 no. 3, pp. 143-156.
Recommended Readings:
- Siregar, M. Y., Warsani Purnama Sari, Ahmad Prayudi, & Alfifto. (2025). Increasing the MSMEs performance through cutting edge innovation capability. Jurnal Siasat Bisnis, 29(1), 41–57.
Note: I’ve attached the slides for the relevant chapter, grading rubric, and the book below (https://www.dropbox.com/scl/fi/10efj01b5l2avuyn4n8…).
Instructor Expectations:
Please ensure you dedicate your utmost effort and attention to detail when completing this task. The instructor places a strong emphasis on proper citation and substantive analysis that extends beyond simply answering the questions. Your work should demonstrate depth, originality, and critical thinking by introducing new insights and supporting arguments with thorough research.
The instructor maintains high academic standards and expects students to consistently strive for excellence. Your assignment should reflect the following:
- Comprehensive Use of Sources:
- Incorporate textbook theories, concepts, and at least three (3) peer-reviewed journal articles to support your analysis.
- Proper APA citation is essential to demonstrate deep engagement with the material.
- Substantial Analysis:
- Move beyond surface-level responses by providing insightful, well-developed arguments.
- Offer unique perspectives and link theories to practical examples to enhance your discussion.
- Attention to Detail:
- Ensure your writing is clear, polished, and well-organized.
- Adhere to the required page count and APA formatting guidelines.
- Avoid vague terms:
Refrain from using words like “many,” “most,” or “some” unless they are absolutely true and backed by evidence. Ensure specificity in your statements. - Incorporate diverse sources:
Enhance your paper by including citations from various sources such as videos, movies, interviews, or other multimedia resources to enrich your arguments. - Strong introduction and thesis:
- Craft a compelling “zinger” (introductory sentence) and a clear thesis.
- These are crucial for quickly capturing your audience’s interest.
- Integration of course learnings:
- Apply what you’ve learned throughout the course effectively.
- Define the problem, conduct thorough research, present your perspective clearly, and maintain focus in your paper.
- Enhance your conclusion:
- Summarize key concepts effectively.
- Include a strong quotation or statistic to reinforce your message and create a lasting impression on your reader.
This assignment is not just about fulfilling a requirement—it is an opportunity to showcase academic excellence.
Additionally, your performance on this assignment will significantly influence my decision to collaborate with you on future coursework throughout my academic journey.
CT_Rubric_100
Description
100 Points
Rubric Detail
Levels of Achievement
Criteria
Exceeds Expectation
Meets Expectation
Some Expectations
Unsatisfactory
Content
33 to 35 points
29 to 32 points
26 to 28 points
0 to 25 points
Demonstrates
substantial and
extensive knowledge of
the materials, with no
errors or major
omissions.
Demonstrates adequate
knowledge of the
materials; may include
some minor errors or
omissions.
Demonstrates fair
knowledge of the materials
and/or includes some
major errors or omissions.
Fails to demonstrate
knowledge of the
materials and/or
includes many major
errors or omissions.
33 to 35 points
29 to 32 points
26 to 28 points
0 to 25 points
Provides strong thought,
insight, and analysis of
concepts and
applications.
Provides adequate
thought, insight, and
analysis of concepts and
applications.
Provides poor though,
insight, and analysis of
concepts and applications.
Provides little or no
thought, insight, and
analysis of concepts and
applications.
15 to 15 points
13 to 14 points
11 to 12 points
0 to 10 points
Sources go above and
beyond required criteria
and are well chosen to
provide effective
substance and
perspectives on the
issue under
examination.
Sources meet required
criteria and are
adequately chosen to
provide substance and
perspectives on the issue
under examination.
Sources meet required
criteria but are poorly
chosen to provide
substance and perspectives
on the issue under
examination.
Source selection and
integration of knowledge
from the course is clearly
deficient.
15 to 15 points
13 to 14 points
11 to 12 points
0 to 10 points
Project is clearly
organized, well written,
and in proper format as
outlined in the
assignment. Strong
sentence and paragraph
structure, contains no
errors in grammar,
spelling, APA style, or
APA citations and
references.
Project is fairly well
organized and written
and is in proper format as
outlined in the
assignment. Reasonably
good sentence and
paragraph structure, may
include a few minor
errors in grammar,
spelling, APA style, or APA
citations and references.
Project is poorly organized
and written and may not
follow proper format as
outlined in the assignment.
Inconsistent to inadequate
sentence and paragraph
development, and/or
includes numerous or
major errors in grammar,
spelling, APA style or APA
citations and references.
Project is not organized
or well written and is not
in proper format as
outlined in the
assignment. Poor quality
work; unacceptable in
terms of grammar,
spelling, APA style, and
APA citations and
references.
Analysis
Sources
Demonstrates
college-level
proficiency in
organization,
grammar and
style.
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Reliability
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prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-1
You should be able to:
LO 4s.1
Define reliability
LO 4s.2
Perform simple reliability computations
LO 4s.3
Explain the term availability and perform
simple calculations
Copyright ©2021 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior written consent of
McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-2
Reliability
The ability of a product, part, or system to perform its
intended function under a prescribed set of conditions.
Reliability can be expressed as a probability.
LO 4s.1
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-3
The probability that a system or a product will operate as
planned is an important concept in system and product
design. Thus, the corresponding reliability can be
expressed as a probability:
The probability that the product or system will
function when activated
The probability that the product or system will
function for a given length of time
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-4
Finding the probability under the assumption that the
system consists of a number of independent
components
Requires the use of probabilities for independent events
Independent event
Events whose occurrence or non-occurrence do not influence one
another
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-5
Rule 1
If two or more events are independent and success is
defined as the probability that all of the events occur,
then the probability of success is equal to the product of
the probabilities of the events
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-6
A machine has two buttons. In order for the machine
to function, both buttons must work. One button has a
probability of working of .95, and the second button
has a probability of working of .88.
P ( Machine Works) = P ( Button 1 Works) P ( Button 2 Works)
= .95 .88
= .836
Button 1
.95
LO 4s.2
Button 2
.88
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-7
Though individual system components may have high
reliabilities, the system’s reliability may be
considerably lower because all components that are in
series must function
One way to enhance reliability is to utilize redundancy
Redundancy
The use of backup components to increase reliability
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-8
Rule 2
If two events are independent and success is defined as
the probability that at least one of the events will occur,
the probability of success is equal to the probability of
either one plus 1.00 minus that probability multiplied by
the other probability
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-9
A restaurant located in an area that has frequent power outages has a
generator to run its refrigeration equipment in case of a power failure.
The local power company has a reliability of .97, and the generator has
a reliability of .90. The probability that the restaurant will have power is
P (Power) = P (Power Co.) + (1 – P (Power Co.)) P (Generator)
= .97 + (1 – .97)(.90)
= .997
Generator
.90
Power Co.
.97
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-10
Rule 3
If two or more events are involved and success is defined
as the probability that at least one of them occurs, the
probability of success is 1 − P(all fail)
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-11
A student takes three calculators (with reliabilities of .85, .80, and .75)
to her exam. Only one of them needs to function for her to be able to
finish the exam. What is the probability that she will have a
functioning calculator to use when taking her exam?
P(any Calc.) = 1 − [(1 – P(Calc. 1) (1 − P(Calc. 2) (1 − P(Calc. 3)]
= 1 − [(1 – .85)(1 – .80)(1 – .75)]
= .9925
Calc. 3
.75
Calc. 2
.80
Calc. 1
.85
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-12
.75
.80
.80
.70
.95
.85
.90
.99
.9925
.97
.9531
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-13
In this case, reliabilities are determined relative to a
specified length of time
This is a common approach to viewing reliability when
establishing warranty periods
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-14
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-15
To properly identify the distribution and length of
each phase requires collecting and analyzing historical
data
The mean time between failures (MTBF) in the infant
mortality phase can often be modeled using the
negative exponential distribution
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-16
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-17
P(no failure before T ) = e −T / MTBF
where
e = 2.7183…
T = Length of service before failure
MTBF = Mean time between failures
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-18
A light bulb manufacturer has determined that its 150 watt bulbs have
an exponentially distributed mean time between failures of 2,000
hours. What is the probability that one of these bulbs will fail before
2,000 hours have passed?
P(failure before 2,000) = 1 − e −2000/ 2000
e-2000/2000 = e-1
From Table 4S.1, e-1 = .3679
So, the probability one of these bulbs will fail before 2,000 hours is 1 −
.3679 = .6321
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-19
Sometimes, failures due to wear-out can be modeled using the normal
distribution
T − Mean wear – out time
z=
Standard deviation of wear – out time
LO 4s.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-20
Availability
The fraction of time a piece of equipment is expected to
be available for operation
MTBF
Availabili ty =
MTBF + MTR
where
MTBF = Mean time between failures
MTR = Mean time to repair
LO 4s.3
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-21
John Q. Student uses a laptop at school. His laptop operates 30 weeks
on average between failures. It takes 1.5 weeks, on average, to put his
laptop back into service. What is the laptop’s availability?
MTBF
Availabili ty =
MTBF + MTR
30
=
30 + 1.5
= .9524
LO 4s.3
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4S-22
Product and Service
Design
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-1
You should be able to:
LO 4.1
LO4.2
LO4.3
LO4.4
LO4.5
LO4.6
Explain the strategic importance of product and service design
Describe what product and service design does
Name the key questions of product and service design
Identify some reasons for design or redesign
List some of the main sources of design ideas
Discuss the importance of legal, ethical, and sustainability
considerations in product and service design
LO4.7 Explain the purpose and goal of life-cycle assessment
LO4.8 Explain the phrase “the 3 Rs”
LO4.9 Briefly describe the phases in product design and development
LO4.10 Discuss several key issues in product or service design
LO4.11 Discuss the two key issues in service design
LO4.12 List the characteristics of well-designed service systems
LO4.13 List some guidelines for successful service design
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-2
The essence of an organization is the goods and services it
offers
Every aspect of the organization is structured around
them
Product and service design – or redesign – should be
closely tied to an organization’s strategy
LO 4.1
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-3
Activities and responsibilities of product and service design include:
1.
Translate customer wants and needs into product and service
requirements
2.
Refine existing products and services
3.
Develop new products and services
4.
Formulate quality goals
5.
Formulate cost targets
6.
Construct and test prototypes
7.
Document specifications
8.
Translate product and service specifications into process
specifications
9.
Involve inter-functional collaboration
LO 4.2
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-4
Is there a demand for it?
1.
Market size
Demand profile
Can we do it?
2.
Manufacturability – the capability of an organization
to produce an item at an acceptable profit
Serviceability – the capability of an organization to
provide a service at an acceptable cost or profit
LO 4.3
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-5
What level of quality is appropriate?
3.
Customer expectations
Competitor quality
Fit with current offering
Does it make sense from an economic
standpoint?
4.
Liability issues, ethical considerations, sustainability
issues, costs and profits
LO 4.3
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-6
The driving forces for product and service design or
redesign are market opportunities or threats:
Economic
Social and demographic
Political, liability, or legal
Competitive
Cost or availability
Technological
LO 4.4
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-7
Supply-chain based
2. Competitor based
3. Research based
1.
LO 4.5
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-8
Ideas can come from anywhere in the supply
chain:
Customers
Suppliers
Distributors
Employees
Maintenance and repair personnel
LO 4.5
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-9
By studying how a competitor operates and its
products and services, many useful ideas can be
generated
Reverse engineering
Dismantling and inspecting a competitor’s product to
discover product improvements
LO 4.5
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-10
Research and development (R&D)
Organized efforts to increase scientific knowledge or product
innovation
Basic research
Has the objective of advancing the state of knowledge about a
subject without any near-term expectation of commercial
applications
Applied research
Has the objective of achieving commercial applications
Development
Converts the results of applied research into useful commercial
applications
LO 4.5
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-11
Legal considerations
Product liability
The responsibility a manufacturer has for any injuries or
damages caused by a faulty product
Some of the concomitant costs
Litigation
Legal and insurance costs
Settlement costs
Costly product recalls
Reputation effects
Uniform Commercial Code
Under the UCC, products carry an implication of
merchantability and fitness
LO 4.6
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-12
Designers are often under pressure to
Speed up the design process
Cut costs
These pressures force trade-off decisions
What if a product has bugs?
Release the product and risk damage to your reputation
Work out the bugs and forego revenue
LO 4.6
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-13
Human factors
Safety and liability
Cultural factors
Colors, preferred food, product labels
Global design
Design teams can be in different countries
LO 4.6
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-14
Sustainability
Using resources in ways that do not harm ecological systems that
support human existence
Key aspects of designing for sustainability
Cradle-to-grave assessment (life cycle analysis)
End-of-life programs
The 3-Rs
Reduction of costs and materials used
Re-using parts of returned products
Recycling
LO 4.7
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-15
Cradle-to-Grave Assessment
aka life cycle analysis (LCA)
The assessment of the environmental impact of a
product or service throughout its useful life
Focuses on such factors as
Global warming
Smog formation
Oxygen depletion
Solid waste generation
LCA procedures are part of the ISO 14000 environmental
management procedures
LO 4.7
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-16
Designers often reflect on three particular aspects
of potential cost savings and reducing
environmental impact
Reduce
Reuse
Recycle
LO 4.8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-17
Value analysis
Examination of the function of parts and materials in an effort to
reduce the cost and/or improve the performance of a product
Common questions used in value analysis
Is the item necessary; does it have value; could it be eliminated?
Are there alternative sources for the item?
Could another material, part, or service be used instead?
Can two or more parts be combined?
Can specifications be less stringent to save time or money?
Do suppliers/providers have suggestions for improvements?
Can packaging be improved or made less costly?
LO 4.8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-18
Remanufacturing
Refurbishing used products by replacing worn-out or
defective components
Can be performed by the original manufacturer or another
company
Reasons to remanufacture:
Remanufactured products can be sold for about 50% of the cost of a
new product
The process requires mostly unskilled and semi-skilled workers
In the global market, European lawmakers are increasingly
requiring manufacturers to take back used products
Design for disassembly (DFD)
Designing a product to that used products can be easily taken apart
LO 4.8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-19
Recycling
Recovering materials for future use
Applies to manufactured parts
Also applies to materials used during production
Why recycle?
Cost savings
Environmental concerns
Environmental regulations
Companies doing business in the EU must show that a specified
proportion of their products are recyclable
Design for recycling (DFR)
Product design that takes into account the ability to disassemble
a used product to recover the recyclable parts
LO 4.8
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-20
LO 4.9
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-21
Standardization
Extent to which there is an absence of variety in a
product, service, or process
Products are made in large quantities of identical items
Every customer or item processed receives essentially the
same service
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-22
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-23
Mass customization
A strategy of producing basically standardized goods or
services, but incorporating some degree of
customization in the final product or service
Facilitating techniques
Delayed differentiation
Modular design
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-24
Delayed differentiation
The process of producing a product or service but not
quite completing production until customer preferences
are known
It is a postponement tactic
Produce a piece of furniture, but do not stain it; the customer
chooses the stain
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-25
Modular design
A form of standardization in which component parts are grouped
into modules that are easily replaced or interchanged
Advantages
Easier diagnosis and remedy of failures
Easier repair and replacement
Simplification of manufacturing and assembly
Training costs are relatively low
Disadvantages
LO 4.10
Limited number of possible product configurations
Limited ability to repair a faulty module; if it cannot be
disassembled, the entire module must often be scrapped
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-26
Reliability
The ability of a product, part, or system to perform its
intended function under a prescribed set of conditions
Failure
Situation in which a product, part, or system does not
perform as intended
Reliabilities are always specified with respect to
certain conditions
Normal operating conditions
The set of conditions under which an item’s reliability is
specified
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-27
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-28
Robust design
A design that results in products or services that can
function over a broad range of conditions
The more robust a product or service, the less likely it will fail
due to a change in the environment in which it is used or in
which it is performed
Pertains to product as well as process design
Consider the following automobiles:
Ferrari Enzo
Toyota Avalon
Which is design is more robust?
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-29
Product or service design changes:
1.
Modification of an existing product or service
2. Expansion of an existing product line or service offering
3. Clone of a competitor’s product or service
4. New product or service
The degree of change affects the newness of the product or
service to the market and to the organization
Risks and benefits?
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-30
Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
An approach that integrates the “voice of the customer”
into both product and service development
The purpose is to ensure that customer requirements are
factored into every aspect of the process
Listening to and understanding the customer is the central
feature of QFD
House of Quality
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-31
LO 4.10
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McGraw-Hill Education.
4-32
LO 4.10
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Basic quality
Refers to customer requirements that have only limited effect on
customer satisfaction if present, but lead to dissatisfaction if absent
Performance quality
Refers to customer requirements that generate satisfaction or
dissatisfaction in proportion to their level of functionality and
appeal
Excitement quality
Refers to a feature or attribute that was unexpected by the customer
and causes excitement
LO 4.10
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LO 4.10
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1. Feasibility analysis
2. Product specifications
3. Process specifications
4. Prototype development
5. Design review
6. Market test
7. Product introduction
8. Follow-up evaluation
LO 4.10
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Concurrent engineering
Bringing engineering design and manufacturing
personnel together early in the design phase
Also may involve manufacturing, marketing and purchasing
personnel in loosely integrated cross-functional teams
Views of suppliers and customers may also be sought
The purpose is to achieve product designs that reflect
customer wants as well as manufacturing capabilities
LO 4.10
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CAD
Product design using computer graphics
Advantages
Increases productivity of designers, 3 to 10 times
Creates a database for manufacturing information and product
specifications
Provides possibility of engineering and cost analysis on proposed
designs
LO 4.10
CAD that includes finite element analysis (FEA) can significantly reduce
time to market
Enables developers to perform simulations that aid in the design,
analysis, and commercialization of new products
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Designers must take into account production
capabilities
Equipment
Skills
Types of materials
Schedules
Technologies
Special abilities
LO 4.10
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Manufacturability
Ease of fabrication and/or assembly
It has important implications for
Cost
Productivity
Quality
Design for manufacturing
Design for assembly
LO 4.10
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When products have a high degree of similarity in features
and components, a part can be used in multiple products
Benefits:
Savings in design time
Standard training for assembly and installation
Opportunities to buy in bulk from suppliers
Commonality of parts for repair
Fewer inventory items must be handled
LO 4.10
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Begins with a choice of service strategy, which
determines the nature and focus of the service, and
the target market
Key issues in service design
Degree of variation in service requirements
Degree of customer contact and involvement
LO 4.11
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Products are generally tangible; services are intangible
2. Services are created and delivered at the same time
3. Services cannot be inventoried
4. Services are highly visible to consumers
5. Some services have low barriers to entry and exit
6. Location is often important to service design, with convenience
as a major factor
7. Service systems range from those with little or no customer
contact to those that have a very high degree of customer
contact
8. Demand variability alternately creates waiting lines or idle
service resources
1.
LO 4.11
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1. Conceptualize
•
•
•
Idea generation
Assessment of customer wants/needs
Assessment of demand potential
2. Identify service package components needed
3. Determine performance specifications
4. Translate performance specifications into design
specifications
5. Translate design specifications into delivery specifications
LO 4.11
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Characteristics
Consistent with the organization mission
User-friendly
Robust if variability is a factor
Easy to sustain
Cost-effective
Has value that is obvious to the customer
Has effective linkages between back- and front-of-the-house
operations
Has a single, unifying theme
Has design features and checks that will ensure service that is
reliable and of high quality
LO 4.12
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Define the service package in detail
Focus on the operation from the customer’s perspective
Consider the image that the service package will present both to
customers and to prospective customers
Recognize that designers’ familiarity with the system may give them
a quite different perspective than that of the customer, and take steps
to overcome this
Make sure that managers are involved and will support the design
once it is implemented
Define quality for both tangibles and intangibles
Make sure that recruitment, training, and reward policies are
consistent with service expectations
Establish procedures to handle both predictable and unpredictable
events
Establish system to monitor, maintain, and improve service
LO 4.13
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Effective product and service design can help the
organization achieve competitive advantage:
Packaging products and ancillary services to increase sales
Using multiple-use platforms
Implementing tactics that will achieve the benefits of high volume
while satisfying customer needs for variety
Continually monitoring products and services for small
improvement opportunities
Reducing the time it takes to get a new or redesigned product or
service to the market
LO 4.13
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