Technical Report Writing

University of South Australia
Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the
Environment
School of Natural and Built Environments
Report Writing
Style Guide
for Engineering Students
4th edition
by Anne Winckel and Bonnie Hart
revised and updated by Monica Behrend and Bev Kokkinn
Prepared in association with
Engineering staff and students,
and the Flexible Learning Centre,
University of South Australia
Sponsored by the University of South
Australia Foundation Inc
June 2002
Major revisions in the fourth edition:
•
•
inclusion of a section of Writing a section
updating of the Referencing section
Major revisions in the third edition:
•
•
•
inclusion of examples of electronic referencing
additions to Appendix D, Punctuation in technical writing
inclusion of examples in Appendix G, Purposes of paragraphs
Major revisions in the second edition included:
•
•
•
•
•
•
addition of an index
variation to the headings for lists of Figures, Tables and
Symbols
addition of a table on the report writing process and related
resources (Table 1)
addition of a section on Starting writing (section 5.1)
inclusion of all referencing examples in section 4 instead of
the appendices
addition of new diagrams (Figs 10–13) to illustrate the
elements involved in a reference list
© 1996 Anne Winckel and Bonnie Hart
First published January 1995
Second edition published August 1995
Third edition published March 1996
Fourth edition published July 2002
Jointly published by the Division of Engineering, Information
Technology and the Environment, at the University of South
Australia, Mawson Lakes campus, Mawson Lakes, SA 5095.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording,
storage in an information retrieval system, or otherwise, without
prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 0 86803 149 6
Production acknowledgments
Desktop production
Anne Winckel and Bonnie Hart
Editorial assistance
Barbara Brougham
Abstract
Students need to develop the skills associated with report writing to communicate
appropriately at University and to fulfil the obligations of their future employment.
The provision of this Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students is to assist
students in developing these writing skills. The initial project was funded by the
University of South Australia Foundation Inc, the Faculty of Engineering and the
Flexible Learning Centre (formerly the Centre for University Teaching and Learning)
at the University of South Australia. Learning Advisers, Engineering Staff and
personnel from other units collaborated to produce this document which is written in
the form of a model report. The Style Guide specifically deals with: formatting
guidelines, components of a report, writing a section, referencing of sources, and the
technical language appropriate to a quality report. Style is often a matter of personal
preference. Report writing styles will sometimes differ according to the purpose of
the report and the requirements of a particular school, employer or publisher. It is
recommended that particular attention be given to visual impact and readability;
referencing of sources; proofreading and editing; and that the selection of style be
consistent and appropriate to both audience and purpose.
i
Disclaimer
We declare the following to be our own work, unless otherwise referenced, as
defined by the University’s policy on plagiarism.
Anne Winckel
Bonnie Hart
Monica Behrend
ii
Acknowledgments
Thanks are extended to the University of South Australia Foundation Inc and the
Faculty of Engineering for providing project funding. Thanks are also extended to the
Flexible Learning Centre (formerly the Centre for University Teaching and Learning)
for providing funding and for releasing Anne Winckel and Bonnie Hart, Study
Advisers, to form the project team responsible for coordinating and writing this
Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students.
The writers would like to thank the Dean of Engineering, Professor Eric Hobson, for
his ongoing support and endorsement of this project, as well as the many academic
staff from the Faculty of Engineering who contributed their ideas, expertise and
advice. Thanks are extended to those who acted as a reference group, and to others
who willingly contributed. We would also like to acknowledge the staff members
who provided specific school-related report writing documents, and the many
students who provided feedback for this edition.
University of South Australia Engineering staff reference group members:
Dr Kazem Abhary
Mr Don Cameron
Mr Justin Cole
Dr Tim Ferris
Mr Oz Gol
Mr David Hands
Professor Eric Hobson
Mr Ray Newell
Dr Keith Notley
Dr Brian Roberts
Mr Bruce Thomas
Dr Richard Thorn
Dr Bob Wiltshire
Manufacturing and Mechanical
Civil
Building and Planning
Electronic
Electrical
Manufacturing and Mechanical
Dean of Engineering
Gartrell School
Gartrell School
Gartrell School
Computer Systems
Electronic
Gartrell School
Others consulted:
Mr Bob Allen
Ms Monica Behrend
Mr Ian Charlesworth
Ms Karen Disney
Ms Tania Giraldi
Mr Roger Hadgraft
Dr Mohamed Hadi
Ms Margaret Hicks
Ms Helen Johnston
Ms Cathy Mahar
Dr Graham Nathan
Ms Leonie Porter
Prof Stephen Priest
Mr Alan Reid
Mr Tony Roberts
Ms Pam Ronan
Ms Lidia Rozman-Jones
Institution of Engineers, Australia
Flexible Learning Centre
School of Applied Physics
Kinhill Engineers Pty Ltd
Library, Levels Campus
Civil Engineering, Monash University
Civil Engineering
Language and Learning, Flinders University
Flexible Learning Centre
Library, Levels Campus
Mechanical Engineering, University of Adelaide
Distance Education Centre
Gartrell School
Flexible Learning Centre
Centre for Professional Communication
Techsearch
Women in Non-traditional Studies, E O Unit
iii
Dr Paul Skrebels
Ms Ruth Trigg
Ms Sue Tyerman
Centre for Professional Communication
Centre for Professional Communication
Computer Information Science
iv
v
Contents
1
2
Introduction
1
1.1
Project reports
2
1.2
Other uses of the Style Guide
2
Formatting guidelines
3
2.1
Format of pages
3
2.1.1 Paper and margins
2.1.2 Page numbering
2.1.3 Headers and footers
3
3
3
2.2 Format of type and headings
3
2.2.1 Font
2.2.2 Size and style of type
2.2.3 Headings
2.2.4 Decimal numbering system
2.3 Format of text
5
2.3.1 Justification
2.3.2 Line spacing
2.3.3 Indentation and centring
2.3.4 Figures and tables
2.3.5 Quotations
2.3.6 Equations and formulae
3
3
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
Components of a report
7
3.1
Preliminary pages
7
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.1.4
3.1.5
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.8
8
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
3.2
Title page
Disclaimer
Abstract
Acknowledgments
Contents
Figures
Tables
Symbols
Text of report
10
3.2.1 Introduction
3.2.2 Main sections
3.2.3 Conclusion
11
11
12
vi
3.3
4
5
13
13
Appendices
13
Writing a section of a report
18
4.1
Planning
4.1.1 Brainstorming
4.1.2 Mind mapping
18
18
19
4.2
Developing a contents page
19
Referencing of sources and originality
20
5.1
Two systems of referencing
22
5.1.1 Choosing between referencing systems
5.1.2 Consistency in referencing
22
22
Author-date referencing (Harvard system)
23
5.2.1 In-text author and date
5.2.2 Alphabetical reference list
23
24
Numerical referencing (endnote system)
28
5.3.1 In-text numbers
5.3.2 Numbered reference list
28
30
5.2
5.3
6
3.2.4 Recommendations
3.2.5 References
Technical language
33
6.1 Starting writing
33
6.2 Structuring writing
33
6.3
6.4
6.2.1 Logical sections
6.2.2 Cohesive paragraphs
6.2.3 Clear sentences
34
34
35
Structuring sentences
35
6.3.1 Proximity of detail and item
6.3.2 Series of nouns
6.3.3 Parallel construction
35
35
35
Grammar
36
6.4.1 Active and passive voice
6.4.2 Tense of verbs
6.4.3 Agreement between noun and number
6.4.4 Agreement between subject and verb
36
36
37
37
vii
6.5
Vocabulary
38
6.5.1
6.5.2
6.5.3
6.5.4
38
38
38
39
Personal language
Gender inclusive language
Jargon and slang
Repetition of words
7
Conclusion
40
8
Recommendations
40
9
References
41
Appendix A
National Competency Standards for Professional Engineers 42
Appendix B
Model title page
43
Appendix C
Plagiarism: Academic Misconduct Policy
45
Appendix D
Punctuation in technical writing
46
Appendix E
Summary of elements in reference lists
49
Appendix F
Library resources and report writing texts
50
Appendix G
Purposes of paragraphs
52
Appendix H
Report writing checklist
53
viii
Figures
Figure 1
Components of a report
7
Figure 2
Preliminary components of a report
8
Figure 3
Indentation of headings in a contents list
9
Figure 4
Components of the text of a report
11
Figure 5
Sample of 3D columns
12
Figure 6
Sample of 3D lines
12
Figure 7
Supplementary components of a report
13
Figure 8
Differences between referencing systems
14
Figure 9
Advantages and disadvantages of referencing systems
15
Figure 10
Book in author-date reference list
18
Figure 11
Journal article in author-date reference list
18
Figure 12
Book in numerical reference list
23
Figure 13
Journal article in numerical reference list
24
Table 1
Resources for report writing process
1
Table 2
Size and style of headings
4
Table 3
Base SI units
10
Table 4
Sample table
12
Table 5
Connectors/linking words and phrases
26
Tables
ix
Symbols
G
=
amplitude of oscillation
t
=
time
x
=
displacement
Xst
=
static deflection of the system under the influence of the imposed force
β
=
frequency ratio
φ
=
phase angle
ω
=
natural circular frequency
ωd
=
damped natural circular frequency
ζ
=
damping ratio
x
1
Introduction
Report writing is an essential skill for engineering students. Engineering reports
analyse data, present results and conclusions, and make recommendations in a
logical, precise and accessible manner. Report writing is both a requirement for
completing an engineering qualification at university and a central part of
succeeding in future employment. The ability to prepare professional engineering
reports is one of the competency standards specified by The Institution of Engineers,
Australia (1993) (see Appendix A). Having recognised the need for students to write
quality reports, the University of South Australia Foundation Inc, the Faculty of
Engineering, and the Flexible Learning Centre initially provided funding to produce
this Report Writing Style Guide for Engineering Students (now referred to as Style
Guide). Learning Advisers developed the Style Guide in consultation with University
of South Australia Engineering staff, staff from other units within the University and
other personnel from various external organisations.
While this Style Guide has been prepared to assist engineering students with their
report writing, it is not intended to be an inflexible set of rules but rather guidelines.
Style is often a personal choice, and report writing styles and content will differ
according to the type of report, the purpose, and the audience. For example,
engineering companies have their own ‘in-house’ style. For each report, students
should consult their lecturer or school to determine if any specific requirements
apply — just as engineers who publish articles and technical reports must conform to
the style required by their particular publisher or employer. (Staff may vary
guidelines from this document according to school requirements.)
This Style Guide is one of many resources that a student may use when writing a
report (see Table 1). In the writing process often the planning, writing and revising
stages need to be repeated to achieve a quality document.
Table 1
Resources for report writing process
Report writing process
Possible resources
Plan
• Analyse requirements/topic
• Brainstorm/preliminary plan
⇒ lecturers; topic guidelines and objectives
⇒ prior knowledge
Study
•
⇒ library; computer data; field work;
experiments
Plan
• Revise plan
• Outline sections and headings
⇒ newly informed knowledge; notes
⇒ Style Guide: structuring technical writing
Write
• Draft report
⇒ Style Guide: formatting, components,
referencing, and technical language
Revise •
Write
Research/investigate
Edit and proofread
• Revise draft report
⇒ Style Guide: recommendations, technical
language, report writing checklist
⇒ Style Guide: formatting, components,
referencing, and technical language
1
Publish •
Publish final report
⇒ other students; staff
Where possible, this Style Guide models the format of an engineering report. At times,
however, this document varies from report styles expected of students. (For instance,
as this document is intended to provide information in an easily accessible format,
there are numerous bullet points.) This Style Guide suggests guidelines for
engineering reports in relation to formatting, components, writing a section,
referencing of sources, and technical language. It is essential that aspects of style are
consistent throughout a report.
1.1
Project reports
Primarily this Style Guide will be useful to undergraduate engineering students who
are writing project reports. Project reports must be presented in a well structured and
visually attractive manner; the competent use of technical language, and accurate
referencing of all sources is also a requirement.
To logically structure a report, students should understand the purpose of each
component. The preliminary pages of a report include an Abstract which
summarises the purpose, methods, results and conclusions of the project. The
Introduction provides the background, objective(s), approach, scope and limitations
of the report. The main sections of the report include the work or research
undertaken and the associated information. This must be arranged logically with
headings to guide the reader. Visual aids such as figures and tables can assist with
the clear communication of material. The Conclusion summarises and identifies the
important findings, placing them in context. Recommendations may be included
indicating future directions. A report ends with a list of references, and any required
appendices.
1.2
Other uses of the Style Guide
Students will be required to write a variety of other reports while at university, such
as laboratory/practical reports, field reports, industrial experience and vacation
reports. Postgraduate students will also have to produce a thesis. Not every aspect of
style detailed in this document will be relevant to all of these reports. The Technical
language section however, may assist all students with their writing, while the
Referencing and Formatting sections may also be of use to postgraduate students. An
example of the requirements of a thesis are set out in the University of South
Australia’s publication, Research Degree Student Information Guide (1996).
Writers should strive to present their work with clear expression and within an
organised structure. Such writing will lead to a professional result which
communicates effectively.
2
2
Formatting guidelines
Appropriate formatting of reports improves the readability and accessibility of
information. This section outlines essential formatting guidelines as required by your
lecturers. An important principle underlying all formatting choices is consistency.
Therefore each report should maintain the same internal style and structure, which
can be achieved. This Style Guide is formatted as a model and the guidelines assume
that reports will be word processed on a computer. If you are unsure about how to
apply the formatting guidelines which follow, refer to the Help menu within the
word processor. If reports are to be hand-written, students should consult their
lecturers.
2.1
Templates
One way in which consistency of a word processed report can be achieved is through
the use of a template. The template forms the basis of a word processed document as
it determines the basic structure and formatting for the entire document. You can
use templates provided with your word processor or use the ones provided by your
lecturers.
When using a template, styles can be created and modified to suit your purposes. For
example, you can create styles for the several levels of headings. Creating a style
saves you the tedium of applying the same font size, appearance, numbering and
white space every time you type a heading or sub-heading. The single most
significant advantage is that using styles allows you to automatically create a
Contents page.
2.2
Format of pages
2.2.1 Paper and margins
•
white A4 paper is appropriate, and printing on one side only is often
preferred for assessment purposes
• each major section of the report begins on a new page; this may be
inappropriate for very short sections or short reports
• wide margins are recommended; for example, allowing 2.5 cm on all sides
• bound reports have a left-hand margin of at least 3.5 cm, and 1.5 on the
other three sides
To change these features using MSWord 2000, go to the File menu and access
Page Setup.
2.2.2 Page numbering
•
•
•
the title page should not be numbered
all other pages may be numbered either in the right-hand upper corner, or
in the centre at the bottom of the page
roman numerals — i, ii, iii, iv etc. — are usually used to number the
preliminary pages (Abstract, Contents etc.)
3
•
arabic numerals — 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. — are used to number the text from the
Introduction page to the end of the Appendices
• alternatively, pages in the Appendices can be numbered internally,
according to the letter of the individual appendix and the number of pages
within each appendix — A1, A2, B1, C1, C2, C3 etc. (where Appendix A
has two pages; Appendix B has one page, and so on)
To change these features using MSWord 2000, go to the View menu and access
Header and Footer.
2.2.3 Headers and footers
•
•
•
2.3
headers or footers position page numbers automatically
two different headers or footers must be created so that the preliminary
pages are numbered separately from the text of the report
student name(s) and ID number(s) can appear in a footer placed against
the right margin in 9 point size (see the bottom of this page)
Format of type and headings
2.3.1 Font
•
a serif font (such as Times or Palatino) is usually chosen for the text of a
report, as serif fonts tend to be easier to read
• a different font (such as the sans serif fonts, Helvetica or Arial) may be
used for headings and tables
• the same font should be used throughout the whole report, unless a
second font is chosen for headings and tables
To change these features using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and
access Font.
2.3.2 Size and style of type
•
•
•
•
•
•
12 point type is the normal size for the text of a report
10 point may be used for long, indented quotations, figures and tables
Table 2 suggests a style of headings with specific sizes
italics can be used to emphasise text where necessary (but it should not be
overused, particularly as there may be confusion with italicised titles)
underlining or bold is avoided in emphasis of text as it is distracting
the use of precise words may be sufficient to create the required emphasis
2.3.3 Headings
•
•
•
headings are numbered according to their importance, using the decimal
numbering system
some writers do not use numbering, but differentiate between levels of
headings through size and style (readability and access to information are
the key considerations)
headings without text should never appear on the bottom line of a page
4
•
•
•
size and style of headings should vary according to the importance of the
heading; the suggested style in Table 2 may prove helpful (to change the
style of headings, go to the Format menu and access Style)
headings can be differentiated using bold type, size and italics (overuse of
underlining should be avoided as it makes reading more difficult)
capital letters are for the first letter of the first word in each heading only;
except for any acronyms (e.g. IEEE), trade names, or personal names and
places, which may require more than one capital (aim for minimal
capitalization in headings as overuse of capital letters slows reading)
Table 2
Size and style of headings
Heading
Point
Style
Example
Size
•
First-level
(includes
Preliminaries)
18
bold
Acknowledgments
6 Environmental
impact
Second-level
14
bold
6.1
Third-level
12
bold
6.1.1 Cost analysis
Fourth-level
12
bold
italics
6.1.1.1Equipment costs
Chemical waste
the best headings are:
– summary statements rather than questions
– not too brief (e.g. ‘Inspection of contaminated site’ is more explicit than ‘Results’)
– not judgmental (e.g. ‘Equipment for review’ is more neutral than ‘Poor equipment’)
– not too long (e.g. ‘The equipment on the Whyalla factory floor’ is unhelpfully long)
2.3.4 Decimal numbering system
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
decimal numbering of headings is normally used throughout the text up to
and including the reference list (excluding the preliminaries)
Introduction is numbered 1; References have the final number (e.g. 8)
too many levels of subheadings should be avoided: third-level headings
are the preferred limit (e.g. 7.2.1)
fourth-level headings (e.g. 7.2.1.1 ) should only be used if necessary, but
not if there is only one heading at that fourth-level
decimal points are placed between numerals, but not after them (e.g. 7.2)
Appendices are not numbered using the decimal system; they can be
internally labelled with letters (Appendix A, Appendix B etc.)
omission of decimal numbering in shorter reports or where there are
multiple subheadings, may increase readability
5
2.4
Format of text
2.4.1 Justification
•
•
all text and headings can be aligned against the left margin except for
where indentation is appropriate (see 2.3.3 Indentation and centring)
text may also be justified on the right-hand margin, and full justification
(right and left margins) is often preferred for formal documents and theses
2.4.2 Line spacing
•
1.5 or double line spacing is generally used for work submitted for
assessment; automatic line spacing (as provided with word processing)
may be acceptable
• line spacing should be greater at the end of a section so it assists in
separating sections
• line spacing may be decreased between headings and text so it assists in
grouping information; the smallest line space (i.e. a four point space) may
be appropriate before text such as a list of bullet points
• extra line spacing should be used in the following cases:
– to separate paragraphs
– to separate figures, tables, equations and long quotations from the text
– to separate a main heading from the section of text which comes before
To change line spacing using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and access
Paragraph.
2.4.3 Indentation and centring
•
indenting text at the beginning of a paragraph is unnecessary when an
extra line space is being allowed between paragraphs
• indentation is appropriate for long quotations, complex mathematical
expressions, lists with bullet points (dots •) and the list of headings on the
contents page
• long quotations are usually indented from both the left and right margins
• figures and tables may be centred in the text
• students may choose to indent each subheading with its associated text, as
shorter lines of text are easier to read; overall length is then affected
To change indentation using MSWord 2000, go to the Format menu and access
Paragraph.
2.4.4 Figures and tables
•
•
•
•
figures include diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps
tables summarise data in rows and columns; a dash (—) indicates no data
all figures and tables may be centred
all should be labelled in bold with the appropriate consecutive number
(figures are generally labelled at the bottom, and tables at the top)
6
•
another method of labelling figures and tables is to number them
according to the major section where they appear (as Table 4 is the second
table in section 3 of this document, it would become Table 3.2)
• each should have a simple, descriptive caption which explains the figure
or table; arrows, symbols, or abbreviations should be explained in the text
• all figures and tables must be referred to in the text (e.g. ‘see Figure 14’);
avoid using words such as ‘Figure above’ or ‘Table below’
• all should be referenced (either author-date or numerical) if copied or
adapted from another source
• figures and tables can be separated from the text with extra line spacing;
labels and captions can be separated using four point spacing
To design a table using MSWord 2000, go to the Table menu.
2.4.5 Quotations
•
quotes of less than two lines (or 30 words) in length should be inserted
‘within your text within single inverted commas’ (Hadgraft, Robertson & Eaves
1994, p. 23).
•
quotes of more than two lines (or 30 words) should be:
set off from the body of the text in a separate block, indented…and single
spaced. Do not use inverted commas around block quotations. When using
the block format, place the [author-date] citation on the line below the last
line of the quote [or if using the numerical system of referencing, place
the number directly after the quotation].
(Hadgraft, Robertson & Eaves 1994, p. 23)
•
changes or additions to a quote should be placed in square brackets
e.g. ‘Ambiguity was caused by [financial] statistics being excluded from the report.’
•
words left out of a quote are indicated by the three points of ellipsis (…)
e.g. ‘Ambiguity was caused by…statistics being excluded…’
2.4.6 Equations and formulae
•
•
equations should be numbered consecutively as they appear, with arabic
numerals in parentheses ( ) on the right margin, in order to distinguish
them from any reference numbers which may appear in square brackets
equations can begin on a new line and should be centred in the text, e.g.
x = G e-ωt sin(ωdt + φ)
(1)
•
in a series of consecutive equations, the equal signs (=) should be vertically
aligned, e.g.
0 = – C1β2 + C2(2ζβ) + C1
(2)
2
Xst = – C2β + C1(2ζβ) + C2
(3)
•
equations should then be referred to by either their number only, e.g. (2);
or with the abbreviation Eq. and the number,
e.g. A combination of Eq. 2 and Eq. 3 allows the evaluation of constants C1 and C2.
7
3
Components of a report
An engineering report can be divided into three main sections:
• preliminary pages
• text of the report
• supplements if appropriate
The components of a report will be determined by the purpose and complexity of the
report. The possible components and sequence of a report are illustrated in Figure 1,
and the significance of the core of the report is highlighted by the double-lined box.
• Title Page
Preliminaries
• Abstract
• Disclaimer
• Acknowledgments ‡
• Contents
• Figures ‡
• Tables ‡
• Symbols ‡
• Introduction
Text of report
• Main sections organised under
appropriate headings and subheadings
• Conclusion
• Recommendations ‡
• References
Supplements
• Appendices ‡
Figure 1
3.1
( ‡ indicates an optional section)
Components of a report
Preliminary pages
The preliminary pages are all numbered with roman numerals (i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi etc.)
except for the title page which is generally not numbered. Not all the components
described below will be required in every report; for example, students may choose
8
to omit a list of figures if only one or two diagrams appear in the report (for other
optional preliminary components, see Figure 2).
Also, a glossary of technical terms or acronyms might be added to a technical report,
or an executive summary may be required in certain cases. Students can adapt the
order of their preliminary pages to meet any specific instructions given by lecturers
or particular schools. Postgraduate students should order the preliminary pages of a
thesis according to the sequence required by their university.
• Title Page
Preliminaries
• Abstract
• Disclaimer
• Acknowledgments ‡
• Contents
• Figures ‡
• Tables ‡
• Symbols ‡
Figure 2
( ‡ indicates an optional section)
Preliminary components of a report
3.1.1 Title page
A model title page can be seen in Appendix B. A title should be brief but informative.
A title page should be simple, attractive, and include the following information:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
name of the university
name of the particular engineering school
name and code of the subject
title of the report (which is precise and indicates the topic and scope)
name of author(s) and ID number(s) (with the family name underlined)
name of tutor/supervisor
date of submission and/or date of experiment as applicable
3.1.2 Disclaimer
A ‘disclaimer’ or declaration of authenticity is often required in major pieces of work
such as large reports, projects and theses. It is a signed statement declaring that the
report is the work of the stated author(s). The disclaimer should appear on a page
following the abstract, and the acknowledgments may be on the same page. This is a
possible disclaimer statement:
I declare the following to be my own work, unless otherwise referenced, as defined by
the University’s policy on plagiarism … followed by the author’s signature.
Students are not guilty of plagiarism if they have correctly referenced the sources of
all material which is not their own work (see Appendix C for a university policy on
plagiarism). Reference must be made both in the text of the report and in the
9
reference list. A disclaimer may also be used to indicate that the report’s results,
conclusions and recommendations are those of the author, and not necessarily a
reflection of the opinions or policies of the university or sponsoring organisation.
3.1.3 Abstract
The abstract is also known as an overview, synopsis or summary. The abstract is
often written last as its purpose is to provide a summary of the report’s essential
information. All material in the abstract will also be in the report, particularly the
Introduction. The abstract should appear on a separate page after the title page, and
it is usually about 100–200 words in length. The abstract should include the
following elements:
•
•
•
•
why?
how?
what?
so what?
background problem and purpose of the report
brief details of the approach/procedure/methods
important results/findings
major conclusion(s) and recommendation(s)
In professions such as engineering, the abstract may be the key part of the report that
is read. A manager may use the abstract to decide whether or not the content of the
report is relevant. For academic purposes, an abstract allows researchers to quickly
review literature and significant findings on a particular topic. An executive summary
can be required for a more complex report. It is a detailed overview of the essential
content, and its length can be several pages or more.
3.1.4 Acknowledgments
The acknowledgments section is optional; however, it is essential that significant
assistance, editing or work carried out by another person or organisation be
acknowledged. Also, students may wish to thank colleagues or supervisors. In a
group-writing situation where different sections of a report are written by various
people, writers of separate sections must be clearly identified.
3.1.5 Contents
The heading for the list of contents is Contents. The list should clearly include:
• all major section/subdivision headings; numbered and worded exactly as in
the text of the report (minor headings are optional)
• page numbers for each section/subsection
Some students choose to include the preliminary pages on the contents list; however,
the title page should be excluded. The contents page may be set out with each level
of subheading indented by a tab space. This allows the reader to understand at a
glance the structure of the report, and to differentiate between important and less
significant information. Figure 3 gives a possible format for a contents list.
10
5
Modelling of linear and non-linear network parts
8
5.1
Linear network
8
5.2
Non-linear network
9
5.2.1
5.2.2
9
9
10
The function of saturation
The function of hysteresis
5.2.2.1
Only use fourth-level headings if essential
Figure 3
Indentation of headings in a contents list
3.1.6 Figures
The heading for the list of figures is Figures. The list is only necessary if more than a
few figures appear in the main text of the report. The list includes the figure number,
caption, and page number, ordered as in the text. For a model of a list of figures, see
preliminary page viii.
3.1.7 Tables
The heading for the list of tables is Tables. The list is only necessary if more than a
few tables appear in the main text of the report. The list includes the table number,
caption, and page number, ordered as in the text. For a model of a list of tables, see
preliminary page viii.
3.1.8 Symbols
Where symbols are used extensively, a list of definitions should appear at the
beginning of the report. If there is no list, symbols should be defined in the text when
first used. The heading for the list is Symbols. The list of symbols should include
appropriate information such as the symbol, definition, quantity to which the symbol
refers, and the unit of measurement. Use an appropriate number of significant
figures or level of accuracy when presenting measurements.
All units of measurement should be in the metric form given by the International
System of Units (SI: Système International d’Unités). Appendix D covers Punctuating
numerals and abbreviations, and care should be taken to include the space between the
numeral and the unit (e.g. 55 cm). Table 3 indicates SI base units. If you are using
another system of units, convert these into SI units.
Table 3
Base SI units
Quantity
Unit
Symbol
length
mass
time
electric current
thermodynamic temperature
metre
kilogram
second
ampere
kelvin
m
kg
s
A
K
(from Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers 2002, p. 178)
11
3.2
Text of report
The pages of the text of the report (beginning with the Introduction) are numbered
with arabic numerals (1, 2, 3 etc.).
An effective report has clear objectives and presents information in a logical
sequence (see section 5.2 Structuring writing). A structured approach assists the
reader by providing a framework for reading the report. An effective structure
includes an introduction, followed by material organised under appropriate
headings, and ends with a conclusion and possibly recommendations (see Figure 4).
Care should be taken to refer to the sources of all information both in the text and in
the reference list at the end (see section 4 Referencing of sources and originality).
• Introduction
Text of report
• Main sections organised under
appropriate headings and subheadings
• Conclusion
• Recommendations ‡
• References
Figure 4
( ‡ indicates an optional section)
Components of the text of a report
3.2.1 Introduction
The Introduction gives the reader the necessary background information. It can
include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a description of purpose(s) and objective(s)/topic(s)
a statement of the problem(s)
a survey of background information
a review of previous work/research and the relationship to the current project
the method(s) of approach
an indication of the scope and limitations of study
an outline of material presented in the rest of the report
(adapted from Michaelson 1990, p. 38)
3.2.2 Main sections
The main sections of the report expand and develop the material in a logical and
coherent manner, reflecting the structure outlined in the Introduction. Information in
the report should be placed in context, and well supported with evidence and
documentation by using references. In Engineering you will be asked to write two
types of reports, scientific and analytical.
12
In scientific reports based on experiments, the following areas, with appropriate
headings, may be included:
•
•
•
•
methods/procedures and materials used
data collected/information presented
findings or results/comparisons with previous work
discussion or analysis of the material
In comparison, analytical reports are based on a review of literature and other
evidence. Therefore these reports involve a presentation of research and analysis of
the literature. The structure of these analytical reports is determined by the type and
purpose of the report (e.g. a feasibility study identifies a problem and evaluates
alternative solutions). The structure is also determined by the key ideas or themes
which emerge from your thinking about what you have read. Therefore a key skill is
to logically order information into sections by using headings and subheadings. In
the sections information which came from your reading is explained, expanded on
and supported with evidence by using references, figures and tables. How to
construct and write a well organized section in a report is explained in detail in
Chapter 3. Another key skill is referencing, where you indicate your source of
information in the text and in a reference list at the end of the text (Windshuttle 1999,
p.295). The skill of referencing is explained in detail in Chapter 4.
The headings and subheadings should divide the report into well defined sections. A
careful division of the report and choice of headings creates an outline or framework
for the report which allows the reader to progress logically through the material.
Lengthy reports are improved by introductions and summaries in each major
section. For information about the format of headings, see section 2.3.3 Headings.
While words such as ‘Introduction’ and ‘Conclusion’ may be appropriate headings,
students should never use ‘Main body’ or ‘Main sections’ as headings.
Figures (including diagrams, graphs, sketches, photographs and maps) and tables
(involving summarised data in rows and columns) can be incorporated into the text
to give clear and concise information. Such visual aids support the content of the
report and can communicate information more effectively. They must be located in
the text as close as possible after the first reference to them. A sentence referring to
the figure or table is necessary in the report. For example, ‘Over a five year period the
performance of groups A, B and C have varied markedly, with no group indicating constant
improvement (refer to Table 4)’. For formatting and labelling requirements, see section
2.3.4 Figures and tables.
Consideration should be given as to whether the data is better communicated to the
reader by a table or a figure. Using tables or dotpoint lists will focus the reader on
relevant and needed information. This technique is easier for the reader than reading
another paragraph. For example, write an introductory comment and then list
advantages and disadvantages of two types of dwellings in a table. Also consider
that sometimes a figure will demonstrate a numerical trend more effectively than a
13
table. In the following example, the significance of the data in Table 4 may be more
clearly presented in the form of a graph, as can be seen in Figures 5 and 6.
Sample Table (from Hadgraft et al. 1994, p. 6) *
Table 4
Year
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
A
97.70
1.20
36.10
31.00
55.90
B
89.93
7.74
39.24
30.11
13.64
C
7.77
-6.54
-3.14
0.89
42.26
* Asterisks or other note identifiers (e.g. double daggers ‡ ) can be used in a footnote to add detail, e.g. to a table.
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
100
A
80
B
C
60
40
20
0
C
A
B
1961
1963
1961
1962
1963
1964
A
B
C
1965
1965
-20
Figure 5
Sample of 3D columns
Figure 6
lines
Sample of 3D
(from Hadgraft et al. 1994, p. 7)
3.2.3 Conclusion
The conclusion(s) of a report must be related to, and resulting from, the material
which appears in the report. The content of the Conclusion will be linked to the
Introduction. The Conclusion places findings in perspective without introducing any
new material, and it may include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
a clear and concise summary of the main points
the context and significance of the information
a reference to the original aim(s)/purpose(s) of the report
the application(s) of the results
the limitations and advantages of the findings
the writer’s judgment/evaluation
3.2.4 Recommendations
Not all reports include recommendations, but if they are required recommendations
should emerge from the conclusions of the report. This section is important to those
who must act on the findings. The writer may include a brief, persuasive statement
before presenting the recommendations clearly listed in numbered or bullet points. A
series of recommendations may be worded in instructional language; for example,
each beginning with a verb. There are styles of reports where the Recommendations
follow the Introduction. Recommendations may involve:
14
• strategies, procedures or techniques for solving the problem(s)
• an indication of further work which needs to be completed
3.2.5 References
A reference list (not to be confused with a bibliography) must appear at the end of a
report, listing all sources that have been referred to in the text. The heading for this
list will be References. (Students should ensure that all sources are referenced in the
text as well as in the reference list at the end of the report.)
The format of the reference list will depend on the system of referencing chosen for
the report. There are two different types of reference lists used in engineering:
• alphabetical reference list according to author – used with the author-date
(Harvard) system (see section 4.2.2 Alphabetical reference list)
• numbered reference list in order of their appearance in the text – used with the
numerical (endnote) system (see section 4.3.2 Numbered reference list)
The reference list only includes the sources referred to in the report. A bibliography is
a wider list of all texts that have been read in preparation for writing. A bibliography
is not usually included in an engineering report (check with your lecturer).
3.3
Appendices
Not all engineering reports will need appendices, which are supplements to the text
of the report (see Figure 7). The Appendices may include material which is incidental
to the report, supportive of the report, or too long or technical to include in the text;
for example, maps, folded diagrams, tables of results, letters, questionnaires,
statistics, and computer program information. Large maps or figures should be
reduced to A3 size where possible, and multiple folding is discouraged.
Supplements
• Appendices ‡
Figure 7
( ‡ indicates an optional section)
Supplementary components of a report
Each separate appendix should be lettered (Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C
etc.). The text page numbering can continue into the Appendices, or alternatively, the
Appendices can be numbered internally using the letter of the individual appendix
and the number of pages within each appendix (A1, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2 etc. where
Appendix A has one page, Appendix B has three pages, and so on).
15
4
Writing a section of a report
An approach to writing a section of a report is explained in this chapter. This process
involves planning, gathering information, reading and noting, further planning,
writing the first draft, and finally revising and redrafting. This process is facilitated
by the use of many resources, as summarised in Table 1 (page 1).
4.1
Planning
The first step of the writing process always involves clarifying the following
expectations: message; purpose; audience, and scope of the report. This also applies
when writing a section.
Message: Begin by clarifying the message of the section, i.e. write a precise heading
or a summary sentence that summarises the section. This will enable you to focus on
the information to communicate.
Purpose: The general purpose of the writing a section of a report is for you to gather
information on a specific topic and the using this information to present a concise,
organised, logical section. The specific purpose of writing a section relates to the
message. For example, you might explain the concept of ‘Solar cells’ by providing a
definition, detailing how they operate, providing an application and discussing
research findings.
Audience: Each report is written for a specific person or group of people in mind.
For example, often the audience is colleagues and professionals, such as engineers.
Scope: The scope of a section limits the information within the section. You can do
this be stating exactly what you will or will not cover in the section. For example, in
the section on ‘Solar cells’ you will not discuss solar energy in general.
Once you have clarified the expectations, you can now plan your section. Useful
initial techniques are brainstorming, mindmapping and developing a Contents page.
4.1.1 Brainstorming
Literally allow your brain to storm or generate many ideas. One way to start doing
this is by listing all the ideas or keywords that come into your mind, as shown in the
example. Do not organise ideas at this stage as that is the next step of mindmapping.
Brainstorm example – Solar energy
Solar cells
Why?
Weather
Financial
Advantages
Businesses
Disadvantages
….
16
Suitability of location
Amount of sunshine
Infrastructure
4.1.2 Mindmapping
Now try to develop a logical organisation to the ideas. One way to achieve this is by
developing a mindmap, a diagram that shows the linking of all the ideas listed.
Figure 8
4.2
An example of a section of a contents page
Developing a contents page
From the organisation from the mindmap you are now able to prioritise the ideas
and generate a series of headings and subheadings. If you can achieve three levels of
headings and subheadings, your section is starting to develop a logical argument.
Contents
1
Solar energy
1.1 Sunshine
1.1.1 Amount
1.1.2 Location
1.1.3 Conversion
1.2 Meteorological variables
1.2.1 Cloud cover
1.2.2 Wind
1.2.3 Rain
1.2.4 Seasons
Figure 8
An example of a section of a contents page
Organising information into logical sections is challenging This process can be
assisted by having read widely and having obtained more information about the
topic.
17
5
Referencing of sources and originality
References must be provided in your report if you use someone else’s opinions,
theories, data or organisation of material, and this includes all occasions when you:
•
•
•
•
paraphrase
summarise
quote
copy
(use their same idea in your own words)
(use their main points)
(use their exact words)
(use their figures, tables or structure)
It is expected at university that students will present original work for assessment.
Where any ideas or written work from other sources/authors appear in your report,
you must acknowledge the sources by making reference to them. These references
must be in the text as well as in the reference list. Failure to indicate the sources of your
ideas may suggest that you are wrongfully claiming their ideas or words to be your
own, which is known as ‘plagiarism’. Universities impose heavy penalties on
students who plagiarise (see Appendix C for an example of a plagiarism policy).
Referencing of sources is also encouraged because it strengthens a writer’s argument.
Referencing shows wide reading and identifies the critical aspects of other research.
5.1
Two systems of referencing
There are two main ways of referencing sources in engineering reports:
• author-date referencing
• numerical referencing
(Harvard system)
(endnote system)
– see section 4.2
– see section 4.3
In a report, students must use either the author-date or the numerical system, not
both. The main differences between the two systems are described in Figure 8.
Author-date referencing
Numerical referencing
In the text of report:
In the text of report:
• author and date in parentheses
e.g. …validation of results (Smith 1992).
• page number included if needed
• consecutive numbers in square
brackets
e.g. …validation of results [4].
Reference list at the end of report:
Reference list at the end of report:
• alphabetical list of references
– author’s surname first
– date follows author
– no page numbers of quotations
– where more than one line in length,
the second line is indented
• numbered list of references
– author’s initials or name can be
before the surname
– title follows author, with date
appearing later
– page numbers are last if needed
Figure 8
Differences between referencing systems
18
5.1.1 Choosing between referencing systems
When deciding on which referencing system to use, students should consider:
• the audience of the report
• the purpose of the report
An author’s referencing style may be determined by the audience of the report — as
specific referencing styles are often required by different lecturers, employers and
publishers of journals and conference papers. For example, many international
journals in Electrical Engineering use the numerical system, while academic journals
in Mechanical Engineering often use the author-date system.
The selection of an appropriate system of referencing will also depend on the purpose
of the report. Numerical referencing may be used where the purpose of a report is to
communicate technical information and the conclusions are of more interest to the
reader than the names of cited sources. The author-date system is useful where the
purpose is to present scholarly research, such as in a research or project report, or in
an academic article or thesis. The names of those who have completed previous work
in the area will be of interest to the reader, and direct textual references to sources
will therefore be useful, rather than having the reader turn to a list at the end.
Possible advantages and disadvantages of the two referencing systems are
summarised in Figure 9.
Author-date referencing
Numerical referencing
Advantages
Advantages
• allows author and date to be seen in
context within the text of report
• saves turning to a list at the end to find
the name of a cited source
• provides an alphabetical reference list
at the end
• means that inserting extra references
into the text is easy
• prevents the text of the report from
being interrupted by wordy references
• prevents constant repetition of the
same references as only a number
needs repeating
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
• creates very long author-date entries if
there are multiple authors and sources
• creates repetition and disruption to
the text when the same source is used
repeatedly
• creates a non-alphabetical reference list
at the end
• means turning to reference list to match
a numerical reference to its source
• may create complications if an extra
reference needs inserting later
Figure 9
Advantages and disadvantages of referencing systems
19
5.1.2 Consistency in referencing
The numerical system and author-date system outlined below are based on the style
that is common for engineering report writing, and the Australian Government
Publishing Service (AGPS) Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers (1994). Other
methods of each referencing system are used by individuals, faculties and
publishers. It is therefore important for internal consistency that only one version of a
referencing system is used within any report. When referencing sources, writers
should also take particular care to maintain consistency with punctuation. For
further guidelines, students can refer to a librarian or the AGPS Style Manual (1994).
5.2
Author-date referencing (Harvard system)
There are two major elements involved in the author-date system of referencing:
• in the text – the author’s surname and date appear in parentheses ( )
• at the end – an alphabetical reference list is included
5.2.1 In-text author and date
To acknowledge a source within the text of your report using the author-date system
of referencing, you should state the following items:
• author’s surname
• date of the publication
• page numbers, if necessary (e.g. when material is quoted or copied)
This information should appear in parentheses or round brackets ( ) directly after
the material quoted (see the first example below). If the author’s name has already
been used in the text of the report then it does not need to be placed in the
parentheses, as seen in the alternative example below.
Author-date references in the text:
a quotation is used
It has been argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the two kinds
of errors differs from situation to situation’ (Smith 1982, p. 47).
or
Smith (1982, p. 47) has argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the
two kinds of errors differs from situation to situation’.
the author’s words are paraphrased
A recent study (Jones & Chan 1991) has shown that testing
procedures are inadequate.
the same author is cited again
Another argument raised by Smith (1982) relates to the error
evident in the conclusion.
20
several different sources need to be
cited at the same time
Jones and Chan (1991), Kuwlesky (1988) and Tan (1992), all agree
that testing procedures are inadequate.
or
Recent studies (Jones & Chan 1991; Kuwlesky 1988; Tan 1992) all
agree…
[names of first authors are alphabetical; and separated by semicolons]
Author-date references in the text cont.
there are two or three authors
A recent study (Lim, Thompson & King 1993) found…
or
Lim, Thompson and King (1993) found the analysis…
[use an ampersand (&) when in the brackets; or ‘and’ outside]
more than three authors appear
A recent study (Boyd et al. 1994) has indicated…
or
Boyd et al. (1994) have indicated…
[‘et al.’ means ‘and the others’]
there are different authors with the
same surname
The theory was first put forward in 1970 (Jones, C. L. 1971), but
since then many researchers, including A. G. Jones (1983), have
rejected the idea.
[differentiate between authors by using initials]
you are referring to an author
(primary reference) which you read
about in another book or article
(secondary reference)
Marini (Tan 1992) stated that…
[Marini is the primary reference]
or
Marini’s study in 1975 (cited in Tan 1992) stated that…
or
Tan (1992), in reporting Marini’s 1975 study, states that…
reference is made to more than one
work by the same author
University research (Smith 1982, 1988) has indicated that…
or
University research conducted by Smith (1982, 1988) has
indicated that…
the same author has published two or
more things in the same year
In recent reports (James 1992, 1993a, 1993b), recommendations
were made…
or
Recommendations by James (1993b) were implemented…
[add a, b, c etc. to distinguish between texts in the same year]
no author’s name appears (but there
is a sponsoring body, newspaper or
title)
A recent study (CSIRO 1990) has suggested…
or
A recent survey (Advertiser 24 Jan. 1994, p. 5) indicated that…
or
A recent survey (Population Projections 1996) shows that…
the editor’s name is the identifying
feature
Current articles (ed. Harris 1994) on the industry suggest that…
or
Current publications edited by Harris (1994) suggest that…
no date can be established
Lewis (n.d.) continued the study…
or
The study was continued (Lewis n.d.)…
21
the source is unpublished
Nguyen (unpub.) argues for…
or
An argument (Nguyen, unpub.) has been made for…
reference is made to a personal
communication
In a telephone conversation on 17 July 1994, King revealed the
site to be safe.
or
The site’s safety is proved (King, B. T. 1994, pers. comm., 17 July).
[personal communications are not included in the reference list]
5.2.2 Alphabetical reference list
When using the author-date system of referencing, you must include an alphabetical
reference list at the end of the report (before the Appendices) listing all sources cited.
Personal communications such as conversations or personal email messages need not
be included in the reference list, as they cannot be checked. When writing the
reference list you must take care to include the correct elements, and to use the correct
punctuation.
The elements required for a book are: the author’s surname(s) and initials, year of
publication, title, publisher, and place of publication (other elements may also be
relevant — see Appendix E). The correct order of these elements is indicated by the
ellipses in Figure 10. The shaded boxes indicate punctuation.
Author’s surname(s)Initials
Year
Title
Place of
publication
Publisher
Muller, B. & Reinhardt, J. 1990, Neural Networks: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Ampersand Full stops
Figure 10
Commas
Capital letters Italics
Commas
Full stop
Book in author-date reference list
The elements required for a journal article are: the author’s surname(s) and initials,
year of publication, title of the article, title of the journal, volume number, issue
number, and page numbers. Some elements will not always apply, and sometimes
others will be relevant — see Appendix E. The correct order of these elements is
indicated by the ellipses in Figure 11. The shaded boxes indicate punctuation.
Author’s surname(s) Initials
Year
Title of article
Quotation marks Lower case
Meyers, A. G. & Priest, S. D. 1992, ‘A technique for moulding cylindrical discontinuous
models’, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Technical Note, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 207–214.
22
Indent
Italics
Commas
Abbreviations
Full stops
Issue number
Volume number Page numbers
Journal title
Figure 11
Journal article in author-date reference list
The following aspects of punctuation should be included (as indicated by the shaded
boxes in Figures 10 and 11):
•
•
•
•
•
•
commas used to separate all elements
full stops used for the abbreviation of words, and the end of the reference
ampersand (&) used to separate last two authors — instead of ‘and’
italics or underlining used to indicate the title of a book or journal
single quotation marks used to indicate the title of an article
titles of unpublished works — such as theses — are not differentiated (by
italics, underlining or quotation marks)
• capital letters used for first letters of main words in titles of books and
journals, and all other letters are lower case
• capital letters kept to a minimum in titles of articles and unpublished works
• short indentation of the second and subsequent lines of a reference is helpful
to show the alphabetical order
A reference list is arranged in alphabetical order according to the authors’ surnames:
• if there is no author, then they are listed alphabetically using the first word of
the title, excluding ‘a’ or ‘the’
• if there are two or more references by the same author(s), they are listed in
order of publication date, with the oldest work first
• if works by the same author(s) are published in the same year, they are
arranged alphabetically by title of the work; lower-case letters are added to the
publication dates to distinguish each work (e.g. 1992a)
• works where the author is the sole author are listed before works where the
author is the senior author with co-authors, regardless of date of publication
For example, this is the correct alphabetical order for an author-date reference list:
Aukland, J. S. 1989, A solar airconditioning system, M Eng Thesis, South Australian Institute of
Technology.
Browne, T. E. Jr (ed.) 1984, Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, M. Dekker, New York.
Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975, Poverty in Australia, First Main Report (Prof. R. F.
Henderson, Chairman), AGPS, Canberra.
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms 1994, 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Henderson Report. See Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975.
Meyers, A. G. & Priest, S. D. 1992, ‘A technique for moulding cylindrical discontinuous
models’, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Technical Note, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 207–214.
Muller, B. & Reinhardt, J. 1990, Neural Networks: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
23
Subramanian, C. 1992, ‘Some considerations towards the design of a wear resistant aluminium alloy’,
Wear, vol. 155, pp. 193–205.
Subramanian, C. 1993, ‘On mechanical mixing during dry sliding of aluminium–12.3 wt. % silicon
alloy against copper’, Wear, vol. 161, pp. 53–60.
Subramanian, C. & Strafford, K. N. 1993a, ‘Review of multicomponent and multilayer coatings for
tribological applications’, Wear, vol. 165, pp. 85–95.
Subramanian, C. & Strafford, K. N. 1993b, ‘Towards optimization in the selection of surface coatings
and treatments to control wear in metal-forming dies and tools’, Materials & Design, vol. 14,
pp. 291–298.
Subramanian, C., Strafford, K. N., Wilks, T. P., Ward, L. P. & McMillan, W. 1993, ‘Influence of
substrate roughness on the scratch adhesion of titanium nitride coatings’, Surface & Coatings
Technology, vol. 62, pp. 529–535.
The sources referred to in a reference list may be books, articles, reports, journals,
conference papers, newspapers, audiovisuals, electronic and other non-print
material. Referencing of electronic sources is a relatively new activity, and the
following examples are adapted from the style suggested by Li and Crane (1993).
Author-date reference lists:
Books:
One or two authors
3 or more authors
No author, 2nd or later edition
Books sponsored by an institution,
corporation or other organisation
Edited work (role of editor not
paramount
Edited work (role of editor
paramount)
One volume of multi-volume work
Chapter in edited book
Muller, B. & Reinhardt, J. 1990, Neural Networks: An Introduction,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
Arrillaga, J., Arnold, C. P. & Harker, B. J. 1983, Computer
Modelling of Electrical Power Systems, Wiley, Chichester.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing 1990, 2nd edn, Architecture
Technology Corporation, Minneapolis.
McKinsey & Company & the Australian Manufacturing Council
Secretariat to the Australian Manufacturing Council 1993,
Emerging Exporters: Australia’s High Value-added Manufacturing
Exporters: Final Report of the Study, Australian Manufacturing
Council, Melbourne.
The Electrical Engineering Handbook 1993, ed. Richard C. Dorf,
CRC Press, Boca Raton.
Browne, T. E. Jr (ed.) 1984, Circuit Interruption: Theory and
Techniques, M. Dekker, New York.
Gopel, W., Hesse, J. & Zemel, J. N. (eds) 1989, Sensors: A
Comprehensive Survey, vol. 1, Fundamentals and General Aspects,
eds T. Grandke & W. H. Ko, VCH, Weinheim, Germany.
Stead, J. P. & Strutt, J. E. 1987, ‘Marine corrosion on offshore
pipelines: predicting the problem using computer-aided risk
evaluation’, in Plant Corrosion: Prediction of Materials
Performance, eds J. E. Strutt & J. R. Nicholls, Ellis Horwood,
Chichester.
Journals:
One or two authors
Issue number included (if each issue
is paginated separately)
Albrecht, P. & Shabshab, C. 1994, ‘Fatigue strength of weathered
rolled beam made of A588 steel’, Journal of Materials in Civil
Engineering, vol. 6, pp. 407–428.
Meyers, A. G. & Priest, S. D. 1992, ‘A micro-processor controlled
pump for triaxial cell pressure control’, International Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts,
Technical Note, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 187–191.
24
No author
‘Efficient low cost solar cell developed’ 1994, Search, vol. 25,
p. 309.
Specialised sources:
Conference papers
Maps
Standards
Patents
Hunt, F. L. 1990, ‘Ballarat East — from Eureka to the 80’s’,
Proceedings of the Pacific Rim Congress 90, Gold Coast, Australia,
Vol. III, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy,
Parkville, Victoria, pp. 473–480.
Mullineaux, D. R. 1976, Preliminary Overview Map of Volcanic
Hazards in the 48 Conterminous United States, U. S. Geological
Survey Miscellaneous Field Studies Map MF–786, scale
1:7 500 000.
American Society for the Testing of Materials 1988, Standard
Specification for Cast Steel Wheels for Railway Service, (A 583 –
88), ASTM, Philadelphia.
Standards Association of Australia 1991, Australian Standard:
Electrical Installations — Buildings, Structures and Premises,
known as the SAA Wiring Rules, (AS 3000 – 1991), Standards
Australia, North Sydney.
Tan, I. S. & Arnold, F. F. (US Air Force) 1993, In situ Molecular
Composites Based on Rigid-rod Polyamides, US patent 5 247 057.
Author-date reference lists cont.
Government publications
Government reports
Newspaper articles
Pamphlet
Microfiche
Video
Bureau of Transport Economics 1986, Demand for Australian
Domestic Aviation Services, Occasional Paper no. 79, AGPS,
Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics 1994, Building Approvals Australia,
Cat. no. 8731.0, ABS, Canberra.
Ergas, H. 1986, Telecommunications and the Australian Economy,
Report to the Department of Communications, AGPS,
Canberra.
Commission of Inquiry into Poverty 1975, Poverty in Australia,
First Main Report (Prof. R. F. Henderson, Chairman), AGPS,
Canberra.
Henderson Report. See Commission of Inquiry into Poverty
1975.
Fist, S. 1994, ‘The call to disconnect analogue phones’,
Australian, 2 Aug., p. 25.
Quit: Give Smoking Away in 5 Days 1987, Victorian Smoking and
Health Program booklet, Health Department Victoria, AntiCancer Council and National Heart Foundation, May.
Herbert, W. G. 1987, The Australian Beef Industry: An Overview,
Australian Livestock Council, Canberra, microfiche.
What Are We Going to Do With the Mo9ney? (video recording) 8
August 1982, ABC Television.
Unpublished material:
Thesis
Unpublished report
Wenjiong, Y. 1994, Efficient coding scheme for video-conference
applications, M Eng Thesis, University of South Australia.
Janz, J. K. 1993, Orroroo bedrock drilling 1993, South Australian
Department of Mines & Energy, Unpublished Report RB
93/042.
Electronic media:
25
Document on World Wide Web
Document via FTP or Telnet
Document via email
Journal article on CD Rom
Journa article via FTP
Online databases
Lists or bulletin boards
Computer programs
5.3
Brown, H. 1995, Citing Computer References [Online]. URL:

King, M. L. 1963 August, I Have a Dream [Online]. Available FTP:
mrcnext.cso.uiuc.edu Directory: gutenberg/freenet File: ihave-a-dream
Harnad, S. 1992, Post-Gutenberg galaxy: The fourth revolution
in the means of production of knowledge, in Directory of
Electronic Journals, Newsletters and Academic Discussion Lists ,
2nd edn [Online]. Available email: LISTSERV@UOTTAWA
Message: Get EJOURNL1 DIRECTORY
Girotti, T. B., Tweed, N. B. & Houser, N. R. 1990 February,
Realtime var control by SCADA, IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems [CD Rom] vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 61–64. Available: UMI
File: IPO (IEEE/IEE Publications Ondisc) Item: 3631953
Drew, J. R. 1989 October, So that’s why they call it the Big Apple,
Qyabta [Online] vol. 1, no. 1. Available FTP: export.acs
.cmu.edu Directory: pub/quanta File: quanta-oct.ps.Z
The Educational Directory [Online] 1992. Available: Knowledge
Index File: The Educational Directory (EDUC6)
Alcohol and Drug Studies [Online]. Available email: [email protected]
Wu, A. H. & Jenkins, B. 1990 May1, Diagnostic Ordering in
Clinical Medicine (DOS version 1.0) [Computer program].
Available Distributor: Health Sciences Consortium, Chapel
Hill, NC (Address: 201 Silver Cedar Court, Zip: 27514)
Numerical referencing (endnote system)
There are two major elements involved in the numerical system of referencing:
• in the text – consecutive numbers appear in square brackets [ ]
• at the end – a numbered reference list is included
5.3.1 In-text numbers
To acknowledge a source within the text of your report using the numerical
referencing system, you should place an arabic number in square brackets after the
quotation, relevant material, or author’s name. This number will then be repeated in
the reference list with the corresponding details of the source (e.g. the reference list
will include elements such as the author, title, and page numbers).
Consecutive numbers should be used for each new reference. However, where you
cite the same source or reference more than once in the report, you can use the same
number again each time. However, if a second citing of a source involves a different
page number, then a new numerical reference is used — and a corresponding new
entry will be included in the reference list.
Numerical references in the text:
a quotation is used
It has been argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the two kinds
of errors differs from situation to situation’ [1].
or
Smith [1] has argued that ‘the relative seriousness of the two
kinds of errors differs from situation to situation’.
26
the author’s words are paraphrased
A recent study [2] has shown that testing procedures are
inadequate.
the same author is cited again
Another argument raised by Smith [1] relates to the error
evident in the conclusion.
several different sources need to be
cited at the same time
Recent studies [2][7][9] all agree that testing procedures are…
or
Jones and Chan [2], Kuwlesky [9] and Tan [7], all agree…
there are two or three authors
A recent study [3] found the analysis…
or
Lim, Thompson and King [3] found the analysis…
more than three authors appear
A recent study [4] has indicated…
or
Boyd et al. [4] have indicated…
there are different authors with the
same surname
The theory was first put forward in 1970 [5], but since then many
researchers, including A. G. Jones [6], have rejected the idea.
you are referring to an author
(primary reference) which you read
about in another book or article
(secondary reference)
Marini [7] stated that…
or
Marini’s study in 1975 [7] stated that…
or
Tan [7], in reporting Marini’s 1975 study, states that…
Numerical references in the text cont.
reference is made to more than one
work by the same author
University research [1][8] has indicated that…
or
University research conducted by Smith [1][8] has indicated…
the same author has published two or
more things in the same year
In recent reports [10][11][12], recommendations were made…
or
Recommendations by James [12] were implemented…
no author’s name appears (but there
is a sponsoring body, newspaper or
title)
A recent CSIRO study [13] has suggested…
or
A recent survey [14] indicated that…
or
A recent survey, Population Projections, [15] shows that…
the editor’s name is the identifying
feature
Current articles [16] on the industry suggest that…
or
Current publications edited by Harris [16] suggest that…
no date can be established
Lewis [17] continued the study…
or
The study was continued [17]…
the source is unpublished
Nguyen [18] argues for…
or
An argument [18] has been made for…
27
reference is made to a personal
communication
In a telephone conversation on 17 July 1994, King revealed the site
to be safe.
or
The site has since proven to be safe (King, B. T. 1994, pers. comm.,
17 July).
[personal communications are not included in the reference list]
5.3.2 Numbered reference list
When using the numerical system of referencing, a numbered reference list appears at
the end of the report (before the Appendices) listing all sources cited. Personal
communications such as conversations or personal email messages need not be
included in the reference list, as they cannot be checked.
The reference list is arranged in numerical order according to the sequence in which
the authors were cited in the report. When writing the reference list you must take
care to include the correct elements, and to use the correct punctuation.
Appendix E summarises the various elements which may be required in a reference
list, and highlights the differences between the alphabetical and numerical reference
lists. For a numerical reference list, the main differences include:
• the reference number appears first
• the initials or given name come before the surname
• the date appears at the end of the reference before any page numbers
In a numbered reference list, the elements required for a book are: the author’s initials
and surname(s), title, publisher, place of publication, and year of publication. The
correct order of these elements is indicated by the ellipses in Figure 12. The shaded
boxes indicate punctuation.
Author’s initials Surname(s)
Title
Place of
publication
Publisher
Year
[5] B. Muller & J. Reinhardt, Neural Networks: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
Full stops
Ampersand
Figure 12
Capital letters
Italics
Commas Full stop
Book in numerical reference list
The elements required for a journal article are: the author’s initials and surname(s),
title of the article, title of the journal, volume number, issue number, year of
publication, and page numbers. Some elements will not always apply, and
sometimes others will be relevant — see Appendix E. The correct order of these
28
elements is indicated by the ellipses in Figure 13. The shaded boxes indicate
punctuation.
Author’s initials Surname(s)
Title of article
Quotation marks
Lower case
[6] A. G. Meyers & S. D. Priest, ‘A technique for moulding cylindrical discontinuous models’,
Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Technical Note, vol. 25, no. 3, 1992, pp. 207–214.
Commas
Italics
Journal title
Figure 13
Abbreviations
Full stops
Year
Volume number Issue number Page numbers
Journal article in numerical reference list
The following aspects of punctuation should be included (as indicated by the shaded
boxes in Figures 12 and 13):
•
•
•
•
•
•
commas used to separate all elements
full stops used for the abbreviation of words, and the end of the reference
ampersand (&) used to separate last two authors — instead of ‘and’
italics or underlining used to indicate the title of a book or journal
single quotation marks used to indicate the title of an article
titles of unpublished works are not differentiated (by italics, underlining or
quotation marks)
• capital letters used for first letters of main words in titles of books and
journals, and all other letters are lower case
• capital letters kept to a minimum in titles of articles and unpublished works
• initial numerical reference with or without square brackets [ ]
The sources referred to in a reference list may be books, articles, reports, journals,
conference papers, newspapers, audiovisuals, electronic and other non-print
material. For a detailed list of examples, see section 4.2.2 Alphabetical reference list —
but note that numerical references are not presented alphabetically, and the sequence
of the elements needs to be adapted to the appropriate style.
Numbered reference lists:
1.
Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms , 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
2.
J. S. Aukland, A solar airconditioning system, M Eng Thesis, South Australian Institute of
Technology, 1989.
3.
B. Muller, & J. Reinhardt, Neural Networks: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
4.
A. G. Meyers, & S. D. Priest, ‘A technique for moulding cylindrical discontinuous
models’, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Technical Note, vol. 25, no. 3, 1992, pp. 207–
214.
5.
T. E. Browne, Jr (ed.) Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, M. Dekker, New York, 1984.
29
or alternatively, using square brackets:
[1] Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms , 5th edn, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994.
[2] J. S. Aukland, A solar airconditioning system, M Eng Thesis, South Australian Institute of
Technology, 1989.
[3] B. Muller, & J. Reinhardt, Neural Networks: An Introduction, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1990.
[4] A. G. Meyers, & S. D. Priest, ‘A technique for moulding cylindrical discontinuous
models’, Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, Technical Note, vol. 25, no. 3, 1992, pp. 207–
214.
[5] T. E. Browne, Jr (ed.) Circuit Interruption: Theory and Techniques, M. Dekker, New York, 1984.
30
6
Technical language
Effective use of technical language is a critical part of report writing. The important
aspects of technical language to be considered are structure, grammar, vocabulary
and punctuation. (The use of punctuation in technical writing is detailed in
Appendix D.) A report must be written appropriately for its audience. The purpose of a
report must be decided before the writing begins. Once it is clear why a report is
being written, then how to write will become more evident. A quality engineering
report exhibits these characteristics:
•
•
•
•
•
6.1
clear statement of aim or purpose
concise and precise presentation of detail
cohesive and logical development of data and ideas
considered objective separation of fact and opinion
categorised layout of well-spaced headings, paragraphs and visuals
Starting writing
When beginning a report, students may find it useful to plan and write the main
sections first. The abstract or summary should be written last as should the
conclusion. It can also be useful to write the Introduction later as it includes an
outline of the structure of the whole report.
A useful technique for developing a structure is to ask questions. These questions
may be: What? Where? When? Why? and How? For example, the planning of an
engineering report on solar energy may be assisted by asking such questions as:
•
•
•
•
What is solar energy?
Where and when is solar energy predominantly used?
Why is usage of solar energy currently limited?
How is solar energy utilised in engineering contexts?
It is useful to ask as many questions as possible because such questions help to
generate ideas and key words for the structure of sections and paragraphs, and for
the associated headings. Students may find it useful to refer to report writing
resources available from their university library (see Appendix F).
6.2
Structuring writing
Information in a technical report is systematically developed at several levels:
sections, paragraphs and sentences. The organisation of this information can be
controlled using various techniques including:
•
•
•
•
different levels of headings
summary, overview or key statements indicating purpose
visual aids such as tables and figures
bullet points (dots •), dashes and lists
31
• linking sentences between sections and paragraphs
6.2.1 Logical sections
Students should consider the overall purpose of the report, and be aware of the
specific purpose of individual sections. Using a flow chart or visual representation
can assist with planning and structuring the report. (For further information see
section 3.2.2 Main sections.) Some possible purposes are to:
•
•
•
•
•
analyse
inform
instruct
persuade
document
data/literature is investigated; gaps are identified
information or research is outlined; results are presented
procedures are explained; strategies are provided
conclusions are discussed; recommendations are made
written record is created and filed
6.2.2 Cohesive paragraphs
Paragraphs are groups of sentences which organise information into the essential
units of the report. Before writing a paragraph, the writer should be clear about the
paragraph’s purpose(s). A useful technique is to decide what the reader needs to
know. The broad and specific purposes of paragraphs in technical writing (see
Appendix G) involve:
• describing facts (e.g. paragraphs which define, classify, and describe)
• describing the relationship between facts (e.g. paragraphs which describe,
analyse, compare and contrast)
A paragraph should begin with a general overview or summary statement before the
specific or exemplifying information is given. Exemplifying information may include
examples, illustrations, descriptions, explanations and evidence which expand the
ideas. A paragraph is often structured with:
• a key sentence
• concept development
• a summary statement
(introducing main idea and/or giving context)
(expanding main idea/giving specifications etc.)
(concluding with main idea/linking to what follows)
Connectors or linking words help create cohesion within the paragraph and between
paragraphs. Information should be organised systematically and one way of
achieving this is to use connectors or linking expressions (see Table 5).
Table 5
Connectors / linking words and phrases
Purpose for link
Connecting word or phrase
show time/sequence
show importance
add ideas
show cause and effect
indicate a summary
first, second, finally, shortly, immediately, soon, subsequently
first, next, most significant, least
again, furthermore, additionally, indeed, moreover, another
thus, since, so, therefore, as a result, hence, consequently, then
in brief, finally, to conclude, in fact, indeed, on the whole
32
show comparison/contrast
give illustration
show concession
show position
on the other hand, though, similarly, however, nevertheless
for example, in illustration, specifically, for instance
granted, despite, while, notwithstanding, of course
next to, beside, in, out, below, juxtaposed
(Adapted from Marshall & Rowland 1993, p. 174)
6.2.3 Clear sentences
Complex sentences are more difficult to read and often contain more grammatical
errors. Reading the report aloud is one technique for locating errors. Students should
aim to keep sentences as short as possible, although it is effective to vary sentence
length. Shorter sentences are useful as summary statements and for emphasis.
6.3
Structuring sentences
6.3.1 Proximity of detail and item
Reading information is easier and the meaning is less confused if the sentence
components are kept close together. Care should be given to the proximity of:
• the subject and verb (person and action)
e.g.
not
The test results were confirmed as accurate after a review.
(subject)
(verb)
The test results after a review were confirmed as accurate.
(subject)
(verb)
✔
✘
• an item, and its detail or description
e.g.
not
Arrangements were made for a meeting to be held on 19 June.
On 19 June, arrangements were made for a meeting.
✔
✘
6.3.2 Series of nouns
Reading is improved and less ambiguous when a long series of nouns is avoided.
Also, when verbs or processes are written as nouns (by adding ‘ment’, ‘ance’, and
‘tion’ etc.) the sentence becomes complicated.
e.g.
not
e.g.
not
The first test to check the circulating water flow
of the cooling tower…
The initial performance flow test of the cooling
tower circulating water…
The fault occurred causing difficulties.
The occurrence of the fault caused difficulties.
✔
✘
✔
✘
6.3.3 Parallel construction
Items which are listed or grouped should be presented in a parallel form. ‘Parallel’
means the same grammatical structure, sentence length, capitalisation and layout.
e.g.
not
Reading is easier than writing.
Reading is easier than to write.
✔
✘
Parallel construction is critical with the use of bullet points or lists (as in instructions,
procedures or recommendations).
33
e.g.
Some aspects of concern are:
✔
• the security of the data;
• the protection of confidentiality; and
• the costs of such measures.
not:
✘
• the need to protect security;
• Without doubt, confidentiality;
• often these are expensive.
(adapted from Hadgraft et al. 1994, p. 21)
6.4
Grammar
6.4.1 Active and passive voice
The passive voice is usually used in engineering reports where the writing is
intended to be impersonal and objective. A passive sentence uses a form of the verb
‘to be’ (e.g. ‘is’, ‘was’, ‘has been’, ‘will be’), plus the past participle of the verb often
made by adding ‘ed’ to the verb (e.g. ‘tested’, ‘identified’, ‘monitored’). The passive
voice is preferred when the human subject or agent is less relevant than the activity.
In a passive sentence, the human subject is placed last or can be removed from the
sentence.
e.g.
e.g.
The situation has been monitored by a researcher.
(human subject at end)
The situation has been monitored.
(no human subject)
(passive)
(passive)
The active voice emphasises the human subject or agent by placing it first in the
sentence. If no human is directly involved in the action of the sentence (e.g. the
subject is a piece of equipment), then it is appropriate to use the active voice.
e.g.
A researcher has monitored the situation.
(human subject emphasised)
(active)
e.g.
Temperature gauges monitored the air inside the cylinder.
(non-human subject emphasised)
(active)
The important issue in the choice between active and passive sentences is placing the
key aspect — whether the activity (passive) or the agent (active) — at the beginning of
the sentence.
6.4.2 Tense of verbs
Verb tense changes according to the section in the report, the purpose of the section
or sentence and the type of information included. The following suggestions are a
general guide only:
• use present tense to explain or discuss
e.g.
– continuing objectives
– general principles or laws
e.g.
– data or results
e.g.
– procedures or instructions
e.g.
The aim of this report is to…
Ohm’s law states…
These results show…
Identify each item by code…
• use past tense (or the past perfect) to state or describe
– what the objectives were e.g.
The main purpose was…
– what equipment was used
e.g.
The cylinders were reused…
– what procedure was followed e.g.
After careful cleaning, the test tubes were…
– what happened
e.g.
The damage to the component had been…
34
The review of literature including other research may be written in either the present,
past or the present perfect tense. Using the present tense is often less complicated.
e.g.
e.g.
e.g.
The research by Elberg (1993) shows…
The research by Elberg (1993) showed…
The research by Elberg (1993) has shown…
(present tense)
(past tense)
(present perfect tense)
6.4.3 Agreement between noun and number
Nouns need to agree with the number before them. In other words the names of
things need to be singular (without an ‘s’) or plural (with an ‘s’) according to whether
there is only one or more than one.
e.g.
the first check_
(singular)
…several checks…
(plural)
✔
e.g.
a pilot program_
(singular)
…three pilot programs
(plural)
✔
Some nouns do not use an ‘s’ to indicate whether they are singular or plural.
e.g.
three pieces of equipment_ ; much information_
✔
6.4.4 Agreement between subject and verb
In a sentence, the subject and verb must agree in relation to number and to person:
e.g.
The results
(plural subject)
…are available
(plural verb)
✔
e.g.
The organisation
(single subject)
…is progressing
(single verb)
✔
e.g.
I
(first person subject)*
…am responsible
(matching verb)
✔
e.g.
They
(third person subject)
…are responsible
(matching verb)
✔
Mistakes with regard to agreement are common when a single subject is separated
from its verb by other plural words, causing the subject to appear to be plural when
it is not.
e.g.
not
A list of results
(single subject)
A list of results are available.
…is available.
(single verb)
(A list are available??)
✔
✘
The following rule helps students to check if they are using the correct verb (it
applies when the present tense is used):
• if the subject is plural (ends in an ‘s’ ), then there is no ‘s’ on the verb
e.g.
The tests
(subject +‘s’)
…demonstrate_
(verb with no ‘s’)
✔
• if the subject is single (does not end in an ‘s’), then the verb does end in an ‘s’
e.g.
The test_
(subject with no ‘s’)
…demonstrates
(verb +‘s’)
35
✔
6.5
Vocabulary
6.5.1 Personal language
Currently in engineering reports, personal language is avoided in preference to
impersonal constructions which emphasise scientific objectivity.
e.g.
not
The mining site was investigated.
I investigated the mining site.
✔
✘
* Check with your lecturer before using personal language such as ‘I’ or ‘we’.
Personal language is occasionally used to distinguish between the views or findings
of other authors and your own. Alternatively, personal language can be avoided by
using objective language.
e.g.
e.g.
Nguyen (1993) determined…whereas my conclusions are…
Nguyen (1993) determined…whereas the conclusion of this study is…
(personal language)
(objective language)
6.5.2 Gender inclusive language
Gender neutral language is language which includes women and men equally.
Technical reports should avoid using male-only terminology such as ‘he’. This can be
achieved by:
• using both pronouns
e.g.
he/she; s/he; his/her
✔
• using gender non specific terms
e.g.
not
The drafter was responsible for the plans
The draftsman was responsible for the plans
✔
✘
• restructuring the sentence to avoid personal pronouns
e.g.
not
A report can be completed by the engineer
The engineer can complete his report
✔
✘
Another method of being inclusive is to use the plural pronoun ‘their’ with a single
subject when it would not be ambiguous. In the past, this was considered to be
grammatically incorrect, but the University of South Australia’s current Policy on
Gender Neutral Language (1991) explains that this is now an option.
e.g.
The operator is to check their machine for safety…
✔
6.5.3 Jargon and slang
Clear and simple English should be used rather than jargon (specialised or
pretentious language). New terms should be defined for the reader. A glossary of
terms or abbreviations may be useful for long, complex reports.
e.g.
not
The use of testing procedures was recommended.
The utilisation of testing procedures was recommended.
✔
✘
Informal language or slang should also be avoided. The words which are used
should be precise to give an accurate meaning.
e.g.
not
The diode was soldered into the circuit.
The diode was put into the circuit.
✔
✘
36
e.g.
not
Artificial intelligence aims to imitate a brain in a machine.
Artificial intelligence is like a brain in a machine.
✔
✘
6.5.4 Repetition of words
Often writers have favourite words or expressions. Reports should avoid overuse of
particular words, groups of words, or sentence structures.
not
not
not
Then… Then… Then…
The test demonstrated… The result demonstrated
It is a requirement that… It is essential that… This signifies that…
✘
✘
✘
In technical writing, clear expression and attention to detail are essential.
37
7
Conclusion
While this document was not developed to be an inflexible set of rules, it is however
intended to assist university engineering students in producing professional, well
organised reports. Student report writing skills can be enhanced by the application of
these guidelines in relation to formatting of documents, components, referencing and
technical language.
Students are encouraged to write with attention to the contents of this Style Guide,
but where instructed students should follow the directions given by their lecturers or
school. Many resources, such as the library, are available to assist students in their
report writing. The use of a specific format or style must be followed consistently
throughout a report.
By initially planning the presentation of their material, students can concentrate on
the content being presented in a report. During the writing and editing process
students may find it useful to refer to the Report writing checklist (Appendix H). A
well written and logically structured report will result in a quality document which
effectively conveys precise information to the reader.
8
Recommendations
With regard to the conclusions detailed above, the following recommendations have
been formulated. Students are recommended to:
• identify and follow instructions from particular Schools or employers —
particularly where such instructions vary from common practice
• read and use the information in this Style Guide
• ensure internal consistency in formatting (particularly of numbering and
headings)
• give attention to visual impact and readability
• acknowledge sources by referencing both in the text and in a list at the end
• proofread and edit thoroughly all written work
Students should remember that excellent content in a report needs to be supported
by high quality presentation, and an accurate use of technical language.
38
9
References *
Baylis, P. 1991, Report Writing for Engineers, Engineering Education Australia,
Milson’s Point.
Eisenberg, A. 1992, Guide to Technical Editing: Discussion Dictionary & Exercises,
Oxford University Press, New York.
Equal Opportunity Unit 1991, How to Communicate in Gender Neutral Language,
University of South Australia, Adelaide.
Hadgraft, R., Robertson, H. D. & Eaves, D. 1994, Writing engineering reports,
Monash University.
Li, X. & Crane, N. B. 1993, Electronic Style: A Guide to Citing Electronic Information,
Meckler, London.
Marshall, L. A. & Rowland, F. 1993, A Guide to Learning Independently, Longman
Cheshire, Melbourne.
Michaelson, H. B. 1990, How to Write and Publish Engineering Papers and Reports, 3rd
edn, Oryx Press, Canada.
National Competency Standards for Professional Engineers (Stages 1 and 2) 1993, 1st edn,
The Institution of Engineers, ACT.
Research Degree Student Information Guide 1996, compiler Research Office, University
of South Australia, Adelaide.
Style Manual for Authors, Editors and Printers 1994, 5th edn, Australian Government
Publishing Service, Canberra.
Schwarz, S. E. & Oldham, W. G. 1984, Electrical Engineering: An Introduction, Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, New York.
* This is an example of an alphabetical reference list — used with the author-date (Harvard) system.
(For students who use the numerical referencing system, see section 4.3.2 for an example of a
numerical reference list.)
A bibliography (a wider list of all texts that have been read in preparation for writing this
document) has not been included in this Style Guide, as it is generally not required for engineering
reports.
39
Appendix A
National Competency Standards for Professional
Engineers
Engineering students should take particular note of competencies 5.1.1 and 5.3.1,
(our italics) which are expected of graduate students or Stage 1 Professional
Engineers. Graduates are expected to be able to demonstrate competency in these
areas with limited guidance.
5.
COMMUNICATION
5.1
Communicate effectively in the English language
5.1.1 Communicates fluently in written and oral expression at a professional standard
5.1.2 Contributes to the preparation, interpretation and presentation of
information
5.1.3 Liaises with colleagues and experts within the organisation
5.1.4 Correctly interprets engineering instructions received
5.1.5 Issues clear and accurate instructions to subordinates as appropriate
5.1.6 Selects appropriate methods of communication
5.2
Present, report on and advocate engineering ideas
5.2.1 Contributes to the preparation and presentation of lectures at a professional
level
5.2.2 Prepares papers for publication in Professional Engineering journals
5.2.3 Communicates engineering information effectively within the engineering
work-force, and to others
5.2.4 Conveys engineering information effectively to higher engineering and nonengineering levels in the enterprise
5.2.5 Undertakes professional development in negotiation, conflict resolution,
counselling, exchanging ideas and conveying convictions and attitudes
5.3
Prepare and comprehend engineering documents
5.3.1 Prepares Professional Engineering reports
5.3.2 Contributes to specifications, standards and graphical representations
5.3.3 Participates in the preparation of more complex documents such as
environmental impact statements
5.3.4 Correctly interprets applicable engineering drawings and other graphics,
specifications, standards, regulations, codes of practice and environmental
impact statements
from National Competency Standards for Professional Engineers (Stages 1 and 2) 1993,
1st edn, The Institution of Engineers, Australia, ACT.
40
Appendix B
Model title page
University of South Australia
Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the
Environment
School of Electronic and Information Engineering
02478 Communication Systems 2
Computer Simulation Assignment
Student: Kim Citizen
ID Number: 9599999K
Tutor: Mr T. Ferris
Due date: 15/10/95
41
Appendix C
Plagiarism: Academic Misconduct Policy
Students should be aware of their University’s policy on plagiarism. The following
definition and policy regarding penalties are taken from the University of South
Australia’s policy on academic misconduct (from University of SA Policy no. A–11.2
1994). The full policy is located in the Student Diary.
Preamble
With respect to academic misconduct, a distinction will be made between a deliberate act and an
inadvertent act occurring through unfamiliarity with academic conventions.
A specific form of academic misconduct is plagiarism. Deliberate plagiarism is regarded as a serious
act of academic misconduct.
Definition
1
Academic misconduct, whether inadvertent or deliberate, shall include the following:
1.1 Presentation of data with respect to laboratory work, field trips or other work which has
been copied, falsified or in other ways obtained improperly;
1.2 Inclusion of material in individual work which includes significant assistance from another
person in a manner unacceptable according to the assessment guidelines for the subject;
1.3 Providing assistance to a student in the presentation of individual work in a manner
unacceptable according to the assessment guidelines for the subject;
1.4 Plagiarism, whether inadvertent or deliberate, which includes the following:
1.4.1 Word-for-word copying of sentences or whole paragraphs from one or more sources
(the work or data of other persons), or presenting of substantial extracts from books,
articles, theses, other unpublished work such as working papers, seminar and
conference papers, internal reports, lecture notes or tapes, without clearly indicating
their origin. This should be referenced appropriately.
1.4.2 Using very close paraphrasing of sentences or whole paragraphs without due
acknowledgment in the form of reference to the original work;
1.4.3 Submitting another student’s work in whole or in part;
1.4.4 Use of another person’s ideas, work or research data without acknowledgment;
1.4.5 Submitting work which has been written by someone else on the student’s behalf;
1.4.6 Copying computer files without clearly indicating their origin;
1.4.7 Submitting work which has been derived, in whole or in part, from another student’s
work by a process of mechanical transformation (eg changing variable names in
computer programs);
1.5 Other actions not covered by the above clauses may be judged by a Dean or the Registrar
to be acts of academic misconduct and be dealt with under the provisions of this policy.
Policy on penalties
2
A student found guilty of academic misconduct shall be subject to any of the following penalties:
2.1 failure, that is zero score, in the component of the subject, a note in the student’s file and a
reprimand from the Head of School;
2.1 failure in the subject, a note in the student’s file and a reprimand from the Head of School;
2.3 suspension from the university for a period not exceeding three years;
2.4 expulsion from the university.
42
Appendix D
Punctuation in technical writing
The purpose of punctuation is to convey ideas clearly and without ambiguity.
Current publishing styles often…
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